VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

A  TEXTBOOK  FOR  COMMERCIAL 

AND 

TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS 


BY 


WILLIAM  R.  BOWLIN,  Ph.  B. 

INSTRUCTOR  IN  KNGLISH,  LINDBLOOM  HIGH  SCHOOL,  CHICAGO 


GEORGE  L.  MARSH,  Ph.  D. 

ASSOCIATE  PROFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH,  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 
(CORRESPONDENCE-STUDY  DEPARTMENT) 


SCOTT,    FORESMAN    AND    COMPANY 

CHICAGO  NEW  YORK 


OOPTBIGHT,  1918 

BT 
SOOTT.  FORESMAN  AND  COMPANY 

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BOOKWALTBR-BALL-GREATHOUSH  PRINTING  COMPANY 

PRINTING  AND  BINDING 

INDIANAPOLIS 


TO  THE  TEACHER 

Each  year  it  becomes  more  difficult  for  an  American  to  "get 
along  in  the  world"  unless  he  speaks  and  writes  good  English. 
This  book  is  an  attempt  to  provide  the  main  essentials  of  an 
English  training  sufficient  for  competent  work  in  any  ordinary 
vocation. 

Part  One  presents  the  principles  of  correct  English — the 
laws  of  the  language  as  to  word  formation,  spelling,  punctuation, 
and,  above  all,  correct  sentence  making.  The  student  who 
thoroughly  masters  Part  One  will  not  make  the  common 
blunders  that  mar  the  writing  even  of  many  college  students — 
blunders  that  sometimes  give  rise  to  the  charge  that  our 
education  fails  to  prepare  young  people  for  business. 

Part  Two  provides  for  practice  in  composition,  both  oral 
and  written,  of  the  kinds  most  directly  useful  in  everyday  life. 

It  is  not  intended  that  Part  One  as  a  whole  shall  precede 
Part  Two  in  teaching.  Both  parts  will  naturally  be  used  to 
some  extent  side  by  side,  the  teacher  assigning  composition 
work  from  Part  Two  along  with  study  of  the  principles 
developed  in  Part  One.  The  following  specific  suggestions  as 
to  the  use  of  the  book  may  be  helpful: 

(1)  The  first  seven  chapters  make  an  obvious  natural  unit, 

providing  a  review  of  the  grammatical  foundation  for 
correct  speaking  and  writing.  This  study  begins  with 
the  sentence  and  its  main  elements,  because  the 
fundamental  necessity  of  intelligible  composition  is 
proper  sentence  structure. 

(2)  .Chapter  VIII  (Punctuation)  can  be  used  at  any  time 

after  the  student  has  a  fair  knowledge  of  correct  sen- 
tence making,  and  will  be  valuable  for  reference 
throughout  the  course. 

(3)  Chapters  IX-XI   inclusive  may  be  studied  at   the 

teacher's  discretion  in  relation  to  other  parts  of  the 
work;  but  the  word  study  of  Chapter  IX  will  be  help- 
ful as  a  basis  for  the  spelling  review  in  Chapter  X. 
3 

\  »v  o  i  Q  Q 


4  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

(4)  Chapter  XII  is  merely  a  source  for  exercises,  which  tin 

teacher  will  assign  whenever  they  fit. 

(5)  The  first  few  chapters  of  Part  Two  provide  for  a  large 

amount  of  simple  and  practical  composition,  with  a 
minimum  of  technical  theory.  The  main  essentials 
as  to  planning  and  paragraphing  are  given  in  Chapter 
XIV;  practice  directed  toward  the  securing  of  good 
sentence  structure  is  provided  by  the  exercises  of 
Chapter  XVI ;  sound  principles  as  to  choice  of  words 
and  the  avoidance  of  wordiness  are  elucidan •»!  m 
Chapter  XVII. 

(6)  Chapters  XIX-XXI  inclusive  contain  material  as  to 

the  form  and  language  of  letters  that  may  be  used 
whenever  the  teacher  wishes  to  assign  letter  writing. 
Chapters  XXII  and  XXIII  are  especially  adapted  for 
the  latter  part  of  a  business  course. 

The  book  assumes  the  ordinary  grammar-school  train! MI:  in 
English;  but  the  material  is  so  developed  as  to  be  teachable 
even  to  students  who  have  rather  hazy  notions  of  grammar. 
For  such  students  additional  help  will  be  found  in  the  Glossary 
of  Technical  Terms  in  the  Appendix  (pages  351  ff.). 

The  material  of  this  book  is  the  result  of  experience  and  ex- 
periment. The  exercises  were  largely  collected  from  the  work 
of  students,  and  nearly  all  of  them  have  been  used  successfully 
in  the  classroom  for  several  years.  The  choice  of  topics  for 
treatment  has  been  determined  primarily  by  the  necessities 
arising  from  bad  English.  The  procedure  in  selecting  material 
has  been  from  observed  faults  back  to  the  principles  wjiich, 
once  understood  and  diligently  practiced,  will  eradicate  those 
faults  and  establish  right  habits  of  expression.  Material  that 
does  not  function  in  this  way  has  been  rejected.  It  is 
believed,  therefore,  that  the  book  presents  d,  minimum 
of  fundamentals  for  a  maximum  of  needs  of  the  young  person 
who  must  make  a  living. 

Teachers  of  "business  English"  or  "commercial  English" 
have  generally  found  that  their  courses  must  be  primarily 


TO  THE  TEACHER  5 

English.  Laying  great  stress  on  business  forms  for  students 
who  do  not  know  the  laws  of  the  language  is  like  teaching 
advanced  rescue  methods  to  a  boy  who  cannot  swim.  Con- 
sequently the  material  of  this  book  is  mainly  English,  only 
secondarily  business,  and  the  English  part  of  it,  at  least,  will  be 
practically  useful  to  any  class  of  students. 

Attention  is  invited  to  the  following  special  features: 

(a)  It  presents  a  complete  review  of  those  portions  of 

English  grammar  that  are  fundamental  to  correct 
spelling,  punctuation,  and  especially  sentence  struc- 
ture. A  Glossary  of  Technical  Terms  is  provided  for 
reference. 

(b)  The  grammatical  exercises  are  all  designed  to  cultivate 

right  habits  of  expression  and  eradicate  common 
faults  in  writing.  These  exercises  are  very  numerous 
and  comprehensive,  illustrating  all  the  material  de- 
veloped in  the  text. 

(c)  Abundant  composition  subjects  of  a  simple  and  practi- 

cal character  are  given,  in  such  variety  as  to  enlist 
the  interest  of  any  student. 

(d)  The  list  of  common  word  roots  (pages  151-153)  pro- 

vides an  effective  method  of  enlarging  the  student's 
vocabulary. 

(e)  The  lists  of  words  commonly  misspelled  or  mispro- 

nounced (pages  174-179)  were  prepared  with  great 
care  to  include  the  most  frequent  offenders. 

(f )  Punctuation  is  treated  in  a  new  inductive  manner,  by 

showing  why  it  is  needed  and  thus  leading  to  the 
methods  adopted  to  meet  the  needs.  Instead  of  a 
more  or  less  arbitrary  and  disconnected  set  of  rules, 
Chapter  VIII  develops  principles  that  are  observed 
in  order  to  make  the  meaning  clear  with  a  minimum 
of  effort  for  the  reader. 

(g)  All  the  technical  material  is  treated  in  such  a  way 

that  (with  the  aid  of  the  very  complete  index)  the 
book  can  be  used  for  reference  as  to  correct  usage. 


6  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

(h)  The  discussion  of  business  letter  writing  in  Chapters 
XIX-XXII  inclusive  is  in  harmony  with  the  principles 
followed  by  the  most  successful  correspondence  man- 
agers in  the  large  business  houses  of  today. 

The  authors  wish  to  acknowledge  their  indebtedness  to 
Professor  Easley  Jones,  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  for  some 
effective  theme  subjects  which  they  have  used  by  permission. 
Thanks  are  also  due  LippincoWs  Magazine  for  permission  to 
use  copyright  material. 


CONTENTS 


PART  ONE.    PRINCIPLES  OF  CORRECT  ENGLISH 

CHAP.  PAGE 

I.    THE  SENTENCE 9 

II.     NOUNS 22 

III.  VERBS ' 31 

IV.  PRONOUNS * 62 

V.    ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS 77 

VI.     PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS 90 

VII.    ERRORS  THAT  CAUSE  OBSCURITY 103 

VIII.    PUNCTUATION 113 

IX.     How  WORDS  ARE  MADE 149 

X.     CAPITALIZATION  AND  SPELLING 159 

XI.    SPOKEN  ENGLISH 181 

XII.    EXERCISES  FOR  REVIEW .' . .  191 


PART  TWO.    COMPOSITION  — LETTERS  — ADVERTISING 

XIII.  COMPOSITION  —  ORAL  AND  WRITTEN 197 

XIV.  ORGANIZING  A  COMPOSITION 203 

XV.  WRITING  DEFINITE  INSTRUCTIONS 217 

XVI.  TYPES  OF  ERRORS  IN  SCHOOL  THEMES 227 

XVII.  THE  VALUE  OF  THE  WORD 240 

XVIII.  NEWSPAPER  AND  MAGAZINE  WRITING 253 

XIX.  LETTER  WRITING 263 

XX.  DETAILS  OF  LETTER  FORM 274 

XXI.  MISTAKES  IN  THE  LANGUAGE  OF  LETTERS 287 

XXII.  SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS 296 

XXIII.  ADVERTISING..  ..339 


APPENDIX 

A.  GLOSSARY  OF  GRAMMATICAL  TERMS 351 

B.  BUSINESS  FORMS  FOR  TRANSMITTING  MONEY .366 

C.  ABBREVIATIONS 369 

D.  BOOKS — A  MINIMUM  REQUIREMENT 376 

INDEX > 377 

7 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


FART  ONE 

PRINCIPLES  OF  CORRECT  ENGLISH 
CHAPTER  I 

THE  SENTENCE 

1.  Importance  of  Good  English.     When  you  reply  to  an 
advertisement  or  write  a  letter  to  a  stranger,  nothing  counts 
so  much  against  you  as  a  mistake  in  English.     Your  reader  is 
striving  to  get  an  impression  of  you — to  classify  you.     He  has, 
of  course,   little  on  which  to  base  his  judgment;  and  for  this 
reason  slovenly  form  or  an  error  in  spelling,  punctuation,  or 
grammar  will  generally  work  injury  to  you.     In  like  manner 
you  are  judged  by  your  speech.     If  your  voice  is  loud  or 
coarse,  if  your  sentences  are  ungrammatical  or  your  words  mis- 
pronounced, you  make  an  unfortunate  impression. 

2.  Grammar  and  Everyday  Usage*     More  than  half  the 
errors  in  our  ordinary  speech  and  writing  are  violations  of 
grammatical  principles.     In  English  these  principles  are  not 
really  complicated  or  difficult;  but  they  are  very  important. 
To  violate  them  is  to  risk  economic  and  social  injury. 

This  book  does  not  include  a  systematic  discussion  of 
English  grammar  as  a  whole,  but  treats  only  those  laws  that  bear 
directly  upon  common  errors  in  the  spoken  or  written  language. 
The  student  need  not  fear  that  the  following  pages  will  con- 
tain much  of  the  technical  grammar  he  may  have  thought 
uninteresting  or  unrelated  to  his  daily  needs.  There  must  be, 
however,  considerable  attention  to  the  fundamental  laws  of 
the  language.  These  constitute  the  ground  plan  on  which  all 
effective  speech  and  writing  rest. 


10  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

3.  The   Sentence.    The  purpose  of  all   use  of  language 
is  to  communicate  ideas — to  tell  something  to  other  people  so 
that  they  cannot  fail  to  understand  it.     The  primary  unit  in 
accomplishing  ,  this    purpose   is   the   sentence.     Fragmentary 
groups  of  words  may  give  some  vague  notion  of  what  one  has 
in  mind,  but  ordinarily  one  does  not  really  say  anything  until 
he  forms  a  sentence. 

4.  Requirements  for  a  Sentence.     A  properly  constructed 
sentence  divides  naturally  into  two  parts: 

(a)  The  subject,  presenting  the  person  or  thing  talked  about ; 

(b)  The  predicate,  telling  what  is  said  about  the  subject. 

Thus  in  a  sentence  of  the  simplest  possible  form, 
Birds    |    fly 

birds  is  the  subject;^  is  the  predicate. 

In  addition  to  having  a  subject  and  a  predicate  a  sentence 
must  express  a  complete  thought.  Unless  their  wings  are 
clipped  has  a  subject — their  wings — and  a  predicate — are  clipped; 
but  it  is  incomplete  because  it  does  not  tell  what  happens 
"unless  their  wings  are  clipped." 

In  sentences  that  give  commands,  the  subject  is  often  not 
expressed,  but  is  readily  understood  to  be  you. 

EXAMPLE:    Go. 

With  this  exception  there  should  always  be  a  clearly  expressed 
subject;  and  without  exception  other  than  in  exclamatory  frag- 
ments (e.  g.,  To  the  moat  with  him!)  there  should  be  a  predicate. 
Expert  writers  sometimes  treat  fragmentary  expressions  as 
sentences,  but  ordinary  students,  stenographers,  and  business 
men  cannot  do  so  in  their  everyday  writing  without  risk  of 
being  thought  careless  or  ignorant.1 

A  sentence  like  "Birds  fly"  may,  of  course,  be  expanded 
almost  indefinitely  by  the  addition  of  details,  thus: 

Huge  black  birds  of  prey  called  vultures     |     fly  in  ever 
narrowing  circles  in  the  rear  of  the  advancing  herd. 

1  A  few  kind;»  of  writing,  for  soecial  reason",  do  not  demand   complete   sentences. 
Telegrams  are  much  condensed  because  of  the  cost,  and  the  text  of  advertisements  often 
fragmentary  *>entence8. 

t 


THE  SENTENCE  11 

Here    the   words    before    the  vertical  mark  ( |  )  make  up  the 
subject;  the  words  after  that  mark,  the  predicate. 

5.  Subject    Substantive    and    Predicate    Verb.      In     the 
expanded  example  in  the  preceding  section,  one  word  of  the 
complete  subject  is  readily  recognized  as  the  most  important. 
This  word — birds — you  know  to  be  a  noun;    and  you  also 
know  that  the  principal  word  of  the  subject  is  always  a  noun, 
a  pronoun,  or  a  word  or  group  of  words  equivalent  to  a  noun 
or  pronoun.     The  principal  word  of  the  subject  is  technically 
called  the  subject  substantive. 

Similarly,  fly  is  readily  recognized  as  the  most  important 
word — the  asserting  word — in  the  complete  predicate,  and  is 
called  the  predicate  verb. 

6.  Modifiers.     All  the  words  except  birds  before  the  vertical 
line  in  the  last  example  in  Section  4  tell  something  about  the 
birds,  and  are  therefore  modifiers  of  the  subject  substantive. 
In  the  predicate  all  the  words  except  fly  tell  how  and  where  the 
birds  fly,  and  are  modifiers  of  the  predicate  verb. 

7.  Additional   Elements   of   the   Predicate.     Besides   such 
modifiers  as  are  illustrated  in  the  sentence  about  the  birds, 
there  may  be  other  elements  in  the  predicate,  of  which  the 
following  are  the  most  important: 

(a)  Sometimes  the  action  expressed  by  the  predicate  verb 
operates  directly  upon  some  person  or  thing,  and  we  have  a 
direct  object. 

EXAMPLES:    John  struck  James. 

The  ship  struck  a  rock. 

(b)  Sometimes,  in  addition  to  a  direct  object,  there  is  a  word 
indicating  a  person  or  thing  to  or  for  whom  (or  which)  some- 
thing is  done.     This  word  is  the  indirect  object. 

EXAMPLES:     John  gave  me  a  book. 

I  gave  the  canoe  a  push. 

(c)  Sometimes   (especially  after  the  various  forms  of  the 
verb  be)  there  is  a  word  in  the  predicate  that  defines  or  means 


rj  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject.     Such  a  word  is  called 
a  predicate  noun  (or  pronoun). 

EXAMPLES:    Franklin  was  a  printer. 

It  was  he  who  secured  help  from  France. 

(d)  Sometimes  there  is  a  word  in  the  predicate  (not  a  noun 
or  pronoun)  that  describes  some  quality  of  the  subject.  Such 
a  word  is  called  a  predicate  adjective. 

EXAMPLE  :    Chalk  is  white. 

8.  Groups  of  Words  as  Elements  in  the  Sentence.  The 
groups  of  words  known  as  phrases  and  clauses  may  serve  as 
elements  of  the  sentence.  A  phrase  is  a  group  of  two  or  more 
related  words,  without  a  subject  and  predicate,  which  taken 
together  are  used  as  one  of  the  elements  of  a  sentence. 

EXAMPLES: 

(a)  The  phrase  as  subject:    Keeping  house  is  hard  work . 

(b)  The  phrase  as  modifier  of  the  subject  substantive:     The 

book  on  the  table  is  mine. 

(c)  The  phrase  as  object:    He  denied  going  to  the  house. 

(d)  The  phrase  as  modifier  in  the  predicate:    He  lived  in  a  small 

town. 

The  clause  is  a  group  of  words  containing  a  subject  and  a 
predicate.  An  entire  clause  may  serve  in  the  place  more  com- 
monly occupied  by  a  single  word — that  is,  as  an  element  of  a 
sentence;  or  a  principal  clause — a  clause  making  a  complete 
assertion — may  be  a  whole  sentence. 

EXAMPLES: 

(a)  The  clause  as  subject:    Whoever  finds  the  money  may  keep  it. 

(b)  The  clause  as  object:     He  appointed  whoever  was  qualified. 

(c)  The  clause  as  predicate  noun :    That  is  what  I  want  to  know. 

(d)  The  clause  as  a  modifier  in  the  subject:    The  man  who  left 

the  bundle  may  have  it. 

(e)  The  clause  as  a  modifier  in  the  predicate:    I  will  come  when 

I  can. 

Many  other  examples  might  be  given.  The  important 
thing  to  remember  is  that  a  properly  constructed  group  of 


THE  SENTENCE  13 

words  may  have  the  same  grammatical  uses  in  the  sentence 
that  single  words  have. 

9.     Kinds  of  Sentences.     According  to  construction,  there 
are  three  readily  recognized  kinds  of  sentences. 

(a)  A  simple  sentence  makes  but  one  assertion,  consists  of 
but  one  clause. 

EXAMPLE:    After  the  destruction  of  the  Lusitania,  indignation  ran 
high  in  America. 

The  subject  of  a  simple  sentence  may  include  two  or  more 
nouns  or  pronouns  connected  by  some  such  word  as  and,  or 
the  predicate  may  include  two  or  more  asserting  words;  but  if 
there  is  only  one  clause,  the  sentence  is  simple. 

EXAMPLES  of  simple  sentences  with  compound  parts: 

(a)  Compound  subject:     John  and  Mary  ran. 

(b)  Compound  predicate:     John  ran  and  caught  the  car. 

(c)  Compound  subject  and  compound  predicate:     John  and  Mary 

ran  and  caught  the  car. 

(b)  A  complex  sentence  contains  one  principal  clause  and 
one  or  more  subordinate  clauses.     Thus  when    a  word   in  a 
sentence  is  modified  by  a  clause  in  exactly  the  same  way  that 
a  noun  is  modified  by  an  adjective,  or  a  verb  by  an  adverb, 
we  have  a  complex  sentence. 

EXAMPLE  :     The  man  who  knows  himself  to  be  dishonest  seldom  holds 
a  steady  eye. 

This  is  nearly  equivalent  to  saying,  The  dishonest  man,  etc.; 
the  group  of  words  in  italics  is  plainly  used  as  an  adjective  to 
modify  the  noun  man.  This  group  of  words,  however,  has  a 
subject  of  its  own — the  relative  pronoun  who,  and  a  predicate 
verb  of  its  own — knows.  Nevertheless,  it  cannot  stand  alone; 
it  is  dependent  on  man  and  is  called  a  dependent  or  subordinate 
clause.  The  clauses  in  the  examples  in  Section  8  are  all  sub- 
ordinate. 

The  term  complex  also  applies  to  sentences  in  which  a  clause 


14  VOCATIONAL  ENGL I s II 

b  the  subject,  the  object,  the  predicate  noun,  or  has  some 
other  construction  besides  that  of  a  modifier. 

EXAMPLES: 

(a)  Subordinate  clause  as  subject:     That  he  should  suffer  thus 

seemed  unjust. 

(b)  Subordinate  clause  as  object:    Columbus  proved  that  the 

world  is  round. 

(c)  Subordinate  clause  as  predicate  noun:    That  is  exactly  what 

he  did. 

(d)  Subordinate  clause  governed  by  a  preposition:    Give  one  to 

whoever  wants  it. 

(c)  A  compound  sentence  is  one  in  which  two  or  more  com- 
plete assertions  of  equal  grammatical  rank  are  combined, 
very  often  by  the  use  of  some  such  word  as  and  or  but.  The 
clauses  of  such  a  sentence  are  said  to  be  independent  or  co- 
ordinate. 

EXAMPLE:    After  the  destruction  of  the  Lusitani »,  indignation  ran 
high  in  America,  and  the  war  seemed  very  near. 

Sometimes  one  or  more  of  the  members  (clauses)  of  a  com- 
pound sentence  are  com} 

EXAMPLE:    When  I  found  he  was  gone  1  started  after  him,  and  here 
I  am. 

Here,  plainly,  we  have  two  distinct  and  complete  assertions, 
/  started  after  him  and  here  I  am;  and  the  first  assertion  contains 
a  subordinate  clause  telling  when  the  act  took  place.  Such 
sentences  should,  of  course,  be  recognized  as  primarily  com- 
pound; but  their  twofold  nature  may  be  indicated  by  qualifying 
the  term  and  calling  them  complex-compound. 

10.  Common  Errors  in  Sentence  Making.  The  most 
common  errors  in  sentence  structure  made  by  students  are  of 
two  kinds. 

(a)  They  run  together  two  or  more  distinct  and  uncon- 
nected statements. 

EXAMPLE:  My  brother  came  home  last  night  he  works  in  Aurora. 
This  group  of  words  is  clearly  two  sentences;  hence  a  period 
should  follow  night,  and  he  should  be  capitalized.  Or  a  com- 


THE  SENTENCE  15 

plex  sentence  such  as,  "My  brother,  who  works  in  Aurora, 
came  home  last  night ,"  should  be  made.  A  failure  to  separate 
distinct  statements  is  an  elementary  and  illiterate  blunder. 

EXAMPLE:  We  came  home  that  evening  about  half  past  nine  at  the 
back  of  our  yard  we  had  a  chicken  coop  running  along  the  rear  of  the 
coop  is  an  alley  a  prime  place  for  thieves  that  night  I  heard  a  sound  in  the 
coop  and  I  took  my  pistol  and  ran  out  there  in  the  dim  light  I  saw  a  large 
cat  pulling  at  my  revolver,  etc. 

Often  students  seem  to  think  that  the  insertion  of  a  comma 
here  and  there  will  correct  the  obvious  absurdity  of  such  a 
jumble  as  the  foregoing;  but  the  fact  is  that,  unless  thought 
relations  exist  and  grammatical  connections  are  expressed,  the 
commas  are  by  no  means  sufficient.  A  period  or  a  semicolon 
should  be  put  at  the  end  of  each  complete  statement;  or  else 
some  grammatical  connection  between  the  statements  should 
be  expressed.  Compare  the  following  sentences: 

(Incorrect}  (Correct} 

It  was  a  fine  day,  we  decided   to      (1)  It  was  a  fine  day.     We  decided 
go  skating.  to  go  skating. 

(2)  It  was  a  fine  day;  we  decided  to 

go  skating.  * 

(3)  It  was  such  a  fine  day  that  we 

decided  to  go  skating. 

In  the  third  example,  observe  the  way  in  which  relations 
have  been  expressed  between  the  assertions.  In  the  vast 
majority  of  cases  it  is  best  to  follow  some  such  method  of  cor- 
rection, rather  than  to  have  a  series  of  very  short  statements 
without  connecting  words. 

This  childish  habit  of  running  together  unconnected  com- 
plete assertions  has  been  variously  called  the  sentence  error,  the 
comma  blunder,  the  baby  blunder,  etc.  There  is  no  worse  error, 
and  unfortunately  none  that  is  more  common. 

(b)  Pupils  often  wrongly  set  off  as  complete  sentences, 
groups  of  words  that  do  not  make  a  complete  assertion.  Some- 
times the  group  lacks  both  subject  and  predicate. 

EXAMPLE:  On  Christmas  Day  with  snow  on  the  ground  and  holly 
wreaths  in  the  window  and  a  new  sled  from  Santa  Glaus. 

iSee  Section  97. 


16  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Often  a  subject  is  lacking. 

EXAMPLE:    Received  your  letter  and  in  reply  would  say  .... 

This  crude  error  is  especially  common  in  hasty  letters.  Some- 
times  it  is  due  to  mere  laziness,  sometimes  to  the  notion  that 
the  first-person  pronoun  7  should  be  suppressed  for  the  sake 
of  modesty.  While  it  is  desirable  to  avoid  excessive  use  of  /, 
grammatical  completeness  of  sentences  is  more  important. 

Sometimes  the  predicate  (or  part  of  it)  is  lacking.  This 
error  is  particularly  common  in  cases  in  which  the  writer  thinks 
of  something  related  to  a  previous  statement,  but  sets  it  off 
by  itself. 

EXAMPLE:    Among  my  friends  I  have  two  favorites.    One  a  doctor, 
the  other  a  lawyer. 

,The  verb  is  must  be  inserted  after  one,  if  two  smtmrcs  are 
made  of  the  example;  but  it  would  be  proper  to  substitute ' 
a  comma  for  the  first  period,  begin  one  with  a  small  1<  tt«  r. 
and  leave  the  sentence  otherwise  unchanged. 

Sometimes  a  subordinate  clause  is  punctuated  as  if  it  were 
a  complete  sentence.  Such  a  clause,  of  course,  has  a  subject 
and  a  predicate,  but  it  lacks  the  third  requirement  of  a  sentence 
— completeness  and  independence. 

EXAMPLE:    That  year  we  studied  Shakspere.     Who  soon  became  my 
favorite  author. 

The  clause  in  italics  plainly  belongs  with  Shakspere  and  should 
be  separated  by  a  comma  instead  of  a  period,  unless  who  is 
changed  to  he.  In  the  latter  case  the  assertion  is  complete. 

EXERCISE  i 

Criticize  the  following  quotations  from  students'  themes. 
Write  them  correctly. 

1.  The  first  characteristic  of  an  ideal  woman  to  be  considered  is  her 

amiable  nature,  and  always  more  considerate  of  others  than  herself. 
(Make  two  sentences.) 

2.  I  arrived  just  in  time  to  see  John  pulling  off  my  overshoes  I  stepped 

into  the  parlor. 


THE  SENTENCE  17 

3.  The  old  house  which  from  boyhood  we  had  thought  of  as  haunted  and 

which  we  passed  in  the  shades  of  evening  on  tiptoe. 

4.  I  found  my  hat  where  I  had  left  it.     On  the  piano. 

^5.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  this  record  covered  a  period  of  general  depres- 
sion in  the  mail  order  business.  We  consider  this  a  very  good 
showing. 

6.  He  could  not  go  back  accordingly  he  set  his  teeth  and  faced  about. 

7.  On  the  south  side  of  the  porch  where  as  a  child  I  had  played  many 

happy  hours  and  where  once  my  uncle  found  me  in  a  spasm  one  hot 
July  day  after  I  had  misused  a  faithful  stomach  in  the  orchard. 

8.  The  water  was  freezing  my  stomach  unused  to  the  shock  began  to 

cramp  no  more  miserable  minutes  have  I  ever  felt. 

9.  Inanimate  objects,  glass  for  instance,  in  making  the  possessive  you 

use  the  of  phrase. 

10.  The  internal  combustion  engine  used  now  on  alniost  all  automobiles 

and  which  has  revolutionized  travel  through  the  aeroplane  which 
was  made  possible  by  the  invention  of  this  engine  and  is  now  in  use 
in  every  country. 

11.  We  should  build  a  strong  navy,  we  need  to  protect  the  canal. 

12.  You  will  find  the  journey  pleasant  it  costs  little  too. 

13.  After  a  while  boys  grow  careless  thus  they  drift  into  bad  ways. 

14.  Where  the  roots  are  longest  and  most  deeply  imbedded  and  entangled. 

Of  course  we  had  to  work  harder. 


EXERCISE  2 

Some  of  the  following  groups  of  words  are  nob  even  sen- 
tences; some  are  more  than  sentences.  Others  are  simple,  com- 
plex, or  compound  sentences.  Examine  each  group  carefully. 
Has  it  a  subject  and  a  predicate?  What  are  they?  Is  the 
group  independent;  i.  e.,  does  it  "make  sense"?  Which  groups 
contain  more  than  one  sentence? 

1.  When  I  am  caught  out  in  the  rain  without  an  umbrella  and  the  nearest 

house  is  a  mile  away. 

2.  Birds  nest.     Bird's  nest.     Birds!     Nest. 

3.  How  peanuts  grow.     How  peanuts  grow! 

4.  Honor  the  Light  Brigade, 

Noble  six  hundred.  — Tennyson 

5.  Which  is  against  the  law.     Which  is  against  the  law? 

6.  The  truck  is  the  cheaper  it  costs  less  in  the  long  run. 

7.  Whenever  the  doctor  calls. 


18  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

8.  Truth  crushed  to  earth  shall  rise  again; 

The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers: 
But  error,  wounded,  writhes  with  pain, 
And  dies  among  her  worshipers.  — Bryant 

9.  Still  sits  the  schoolhouse  by  the  road, 

A  ragged  beggar  sunn i in:.  — Whitticr 

10.  A  year  has  gone  as  the  tortoise  goes, 

Heavy  and  slow.  — Whittier 

EXERCISE  8 

Pick  out  the  clauses  in  each  of  the  following  quotation?. 
When  a  passage  seems  difficult  to  comprehend,  put  in  an  under- 
stood word. 

1.  Leaves  have  their  time  to  fall, 

And  flowers  to  wither  at  the  north  wind's  breath, 
And  stars  to  set — but  all 
Thou  hast  all  season*  for  thine  own,  O  Death !       — Mrs.  Hemans 

2.  Teach  me  to  feel  another's  woe, 

To  hide  the  fault  I  see. 
That  mercy  I  to  others  show, 
That  mercy  show  to  me.  —"The  Universal  Prayer,1'  Pope 

3.  Is  there  for  honest  poverty 

Wha  hangs  his  head,  and  a'  that?  — Burn* 

4.  Rich  the  treasure, 

Sweet  the  pleasure    ....  — Dryden 

5.  I  would  not  enter  on  my  list  of  friends, 

Though  graced  with  polished  manners  and  fine  sense, 

Yet  lacking  sensibility,  the  man 

Who  needlessly  sets  foot  upon  a  worm.  — William  Cowper 

EXERCISE  4 

Answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  What  elements  are  necessary  to  a  sentence?    Is  an  object  necessary? 

Are  modifiers  necessary? 

2.  Must  the  subject  be  stated?    When  is  a  word  "understood"? 

3.  What  is  the  greatest  danger  resulting  from  a  failure  to  indicate  the 

end  of  a  sentence?     (Study  Sentence  2,  Exercise  1.) 

4.  In  what  sense  may  a  clause  be  an  adjective  or  an  adverb?    Illustrate. 

5.  Is  a  simple  sentence  always  short?    Is  a  compound  sentence  always 

long?    Illustrate. 

6.  What  is  n  complex-compound  sentence? 


THE  SENTENCE  19 

7.  What  is  a  predicate  noun?     A  predicate  adjective? 

8.  Write  sentences  having  subjects  consisting  of: 

(a)  a  noun  (c)  a  phrase 

(b)  a  pronoun  (d)  a  clause 

11.  The  Parts  of  Speech.  The  thousands  of  words  in  our 
language  are  divided,  according  to  their  use  in  sentences,  into 
eight  classes  called  the  parts  of  speech. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  pupil  knows  these  classes  and,  in 
general,  their  definitions.  It  is  necessary  to  give  some  atten- 
tion, however,  to  various  important  matters  for  the  purpose 
of  refreshing  the  student's  memory  as  to  the  parts  of  speech. 
The  material  will  be  presented  in  the  following  order:  Nouns, 
Verbs,  Pronouns,  Adjectives  and  Adverbs,  Conjunctions  and 
Prepositions.  (The  eighth  part  of  speech,  Interjections,  need 
not  be  treated  here  because  they  do  not  occur  very  often  and 
no  difficulties  are  involved  in  their  use.) 

It  must  be  remembered  that  a  given  word  may  be  used 
as  different  parts  of  speech  in  different  places.  Man  is  usually 
a  noun.  But  in  the  sentence,  "We  must  man  the  boats,"  it  is 
a  verb.  Up  is  most  often  an  adverb.  But  in  the  sentence, 
"I  am  going  up  a  hill,"  it  is  a  preposition.  Note  also  the 
following  uses  of  up: 

1.  As  an  adjective:     He  failed  on  the  up  grade. 

2.  As  a  verb:     While  the  old  Dutch  clock  in  the  chimney  place 

Up  with  its  hands  before  its  face. 

— Field 

3.  As  a  noun!    We  have  our  ups  and  downs. 

Other  words  can  similarly  be  used  in  various  ways.     The  use 
in  a  given  sentence  always  determines  the  part  of  speech. 

EXERCISE  5 

Tell  what  part  of  speech  each  of  the  italicized  words  in  the 
following  sentences  is: 

1.  The  tree  by  the  shed  shed  its  leaves  early. 

2.  The  green  is  not  so  green  as  usual.     Perhaps  it  will  green  up  after 

a  rain. 


20  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

3.  He  stayed  for  dinner,  for  it  was  a  long  way  home. 

4.  For  is  a  preposition. 

5.  It  will  snow  tomorrow. 

6.  The  best  thing  to  do  is  to  buy  only  the  best. 

7.  lie  prayeth  best  who  loveth  best.  — Coleridge 

8.  Wait  a  minute.       Til  go  with  you.    The  wait  is  lonesome  in  this 

cheerless  waiting  room. 

9.  Hold!   The  hold  is  full  of  water. 

in.   Where  should  the  where  clause  be? 

1 1 .  White  and  black  alike  resented  the  law. 

U.  Down  grade,  soft  down,  first  down,  to  down  him,  down  a  hill,  going 

down.    Down,  please.     (Why  does  the  last  word  group  begin  with 

a  capital  and  not  the  others?) 

12.  Inflection.  Some  of  the  parts  of  speech  are  inflected — 
that  is,  changed  (flex  means  to  bend)  at  some  point,  usually 
the  end,  to  serve  special  purposes.  These  changes  are  used 
to  show  how  words  are  related  in  the  sentence,  thereby  making 
the  thought  clear.  English  has  comparatively  few  inflectional 
changes,  but  those  few  are  very  important. 

.EXAMPLES: 

Simple  form  An  inflected  form 

( house  houses 

Nouns  |  man  men 

(Fred  Fred's 

Adjective  long  longer 

Verb  run  runs 

Adverb  quickly  more  quickly 

Pronoun  who  whom 

Prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  interjections  are  not 
inflected;  i.  e.,  each  has  one  form  only. 

EXERCISE  e 

1.  How  would  you  change  the  following  words  (or  word 
group)  if  you  want  to  speak  of  more  than  one  of  each? 

House,  he,  it,  key,  sky,  this,  that,  order  of  the  day. 

2.  How  would  you  change  (inflect)  the  following  words  to 
mean  more  of  the  quality  each  denotes? 

White,  beautiful,  ill,  swiftly,  certain. 


THE  SENTENCE  21 

3.  How  would  you  inflect  the  following  words  to  prepare 
them  to  take  the  place  of  the  word  John  in  the  sentence,  "Fred 
struck  John"? 

I,  they,  she,  who,  we. 

4.  How  would  you  inflect  the  following  words  so  that  they 
might  properly  fill  the  blank  in  the  sentence,  "The  soldier 
—  every  day"? 

Fly,  come,  run,  fight,  rest. 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  I 

1.  Why  is  good  English  important  to  a  business  or  professional  man! 

2.  Why  is  grammar  important? 

3.  What  is  a  direct  object?    An  indirect  object? 

4.  What  is  a  substantive?    Use  a  phrase  as  a  substantive.    A  clause. 

5.  Illustrate:    (a)  a  compound  subject;    (b)  a  compound  predicate; 
(c)  a  compound  object;    (d)  a  compound  modifier. 

6.  Give  examples  of:  (a)  a  simple  sentence;  (b)  a  compound  sentence; 
(c)  a  complex  sentence;    (d)  a  complex-compound  sentence. 

7.  What  are  the  most  common  errors  in  sentence  making? 

8.  Illustrate  the  way  in  which  a  word  may  be  used  as  different  parts 
of  speech. 


CHAPTER    II 

NOUNS 

13.  Nouns  as  Names.     Every  high-school  pupil  knows  that 
"nouns  are  names,"  but  he  must  not  allow  himself  to  think  of 
them  as  names  of  persons  or  things  only.    Every  sort  of  nam  • 
is  ordinarily  a  noun.    Note,  for  instance,  that  the  names  of 
abstract  ideas  (often  called  abstract  nouns)  are  nouns. 

EXAMPLES:    love,  fear,  hope,  silence,  misfortune,  loss,  heat. 

• 

Verb  forms  ending  in  ing  often  become  names  of  actions  and 
then  are  nouns. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  Running  is  good  exercise. 

(2)  Most  people  »njoy  tinging. 

(3)  All  his  being  was  filled  with  joy. 

14.  Inflection  of  Nouns;  Person  and  Gender.     Nouns  are 
inflected  for  number,  and  to  a  limited  extent  for  case  and  gender. 
Once  there  was  some  inflection  of  nouns  for  person,  but  now 
person  and  gender  may  be  passed  with  very  brief  consideration. 

Person.  Except  in  cases  of  direct  address  (second  person; 
as,  John,  you  are  mistaken),  and  cases  in  which  nouns  are  in 
apposition  with  pronouns  of  the  first  or  second  person  (I,  John, 
tell  you  this;  you,  William,  must  go)  all  nouns  represent 
"person  or  thing  spoken  of,"  and  are  therefore  third  person. 
Moreover,  even  in  t  hese  rare  first-person  or  second-person  uses, 
the  form  remains  unchanged;  hence,  with  nouns,  it  is  need- 
less to  consider  inflection  for  person. 

Gender.  While  there  are  a  good  many  nouns  with  the 
feminine  ending  ess  (heiress,  lioness,  etc.),  and  some  with  other 
feminine  endings  borrowed  from  various  languages  (executrix, 
alumna,  heroine,  etc.),  in  general  one  who  knows  the  meaning 
of  a  noun  knows  which  sex  it  indicates,  or  whether  it  indicates 
sex  at  all.  In  other  words,  gender  is  usually  only  a  matter  of 

22 


NOUNS  23 

vocabulary;  hence  the  inflection  of  nouns  for  gender  needs  no 
special  attention. 

15.  Number  of  Nouns.     Nearly  all  nouns  have  different 
forms  to  indicate  whether  one  or  more  than  one  is  meant. 
A  few  exceptions  having  the  same  form  for  both  singular  and 
plural  are: 

deer  sheep  fish1  trout  species1 

cannon1          swine  (usually  plural)  bass  Japanese 

This  list  is  not  intended  to  be  complete.  The  names  of  most 
kinds  of  game  or  fish  may  be  the  same  in  the  plural  as  in  the 
singular. 

16.  The  Common  ftf  ethod  of  Making  English  Plurals.     As 
every  one  knows,  the  overwhelming  majority  of  English  nouns 
form  their  plurals  by  adding  s  to  the  singular.     Sometimes 
slight  modifications  are  necessary  along  with  the  -addition  of 
5,  but  these  seeming  irregularities  are  easily  accounted  for. 

(a)  Thus  there  are  cases  in  which  s  alone  does  not  readily 
combine  with  the  last  sound  of  the  singular  noun. 

EXAMPLES:  church  gas  tax 

We  cannot  add  the  sound  of  s  to  such  words  without  making 
an  additional  syllable,  naturally  spelled  es.  Accordingly  we 
make  the  rule  that  nouns  ending  in  ch  (soft),  sh,  s,  x,  and  z  add 
es  to  form  their  plurals. 

(b)  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  change  the 
y  to  i  and  add  es. 

EXAMPLES:    sky — skies        fly — flies 

When  a  vowel  precedes  the  final  y,  however,  the  plural  is 
regular,  simply  adding  s. 

EXAMPLES  :    monkey — monkeys        donkey — donkeys 

(c)  A  number  of  nouns  ending  mforfe  form  their  plurals  by 
changing  the  /  (or  fe)  to  v  and  adding  es  (thief — thieves) ;  but 

^Specie  means  money;  fishes  is  a  correct  form  when  varieties  of  fish  are  meant; 
cannons  h  allowable. 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

many  nouns  ending  in  /  are  regular,  simply  adding  s  (reef— 
reefs).  The  student  must  learn  the  words  that  are  irregular 
and  assume  that  other  nouns  ending  in/  are  regular.  Note  the 
following  list  of  nouns  that  end  in  ves  in  the  plural: 

beef  calf  elf  kmn  leaf 

life  wolf  loaf  self  >h«-.-if 

thief  wharf  wife  shelf  half 

(d)  A  number  of  nouns  ending  in  o  (preceded  by  a  con- 
sonant) add  es  instead  of  «.  Here  also  one  must  learn  the 
words  that  are  irregular  and  assume  that  the  others  add  only  s. 
Note  the  following  list  of  common  words  that  add  es:1 

buffalo  cargo  domino*          echo  embargo 

hero  hobo  mosquito        motto  mulatto 

Negro  potato  tomato  tornado          volcano 

17.  Some  Special  English  Plurals.     A  few  English  words 
present  special  survivals  of  old  plural  forms  not  ending  in  s  or  es. 
In  ox  and  child  (and  rarely  in  a  few  other  words)  an  old  plural 
ending  en  is  used — oxen,  children.     Brother  has  the  regular 
plural  brothers  and  also  the  form  brethren.     In  the  following 
cases  the  vowel  of  the  root  is  changed : 

man — men  woman — women  tooth — teeth 

goose — geese  foot — feet  louse — lice 

mouse — mice 

These  words  are  all  in  such  common  use  that  errors  seldom 
occur. 

Compound  nouns  form  their  plurals  in  various  ways;  some- 
times by  making  the  first  part  plural  (sons-in-law) ,  sometimes 
by  making  the  last  part  plural  (fellow-men),  sometimes  by 
making  both  parts  plural  (men-servants) . 

18.  Foreign  Plurals.     The  case  of  foreign  plurals  involves 
more  difficulty.     The  English  language  as  it  exists  today  is  a 
composite  of  elements  from  many  languages.     Its  basis — from 

1  Most  words  to  which  either  es  or  «  may  be  added  for  the  plural— e.  g.,  calico — are 
omitted  from  the  list. 

'There  is  such  a  word  as  dominos.    How  does  it  differ  in  meaning  from  dominoctt 


NOUNS 


25 


which  we  get  the  prevailing  plural  ending  s  (es) — is  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Anglo-Saxon  invaders  of  Britain  of  about  the 
fifth  century  A.  D.  But  a  great  number  of  words  from  various 
languages — more  from  Latin  than  any  other — have  been 
adopted  whenever  they  have  been  needed.  Many  of  the  nouns 
from  these  various  sources  have  taken  English  plurals,  but 
many  have  kept  their  foreign  plurals.  Some  have  both  foreign 
and  English  plurals.  These  foreign  plurals — irregular  from  our 
English  point  of  view,  though  the  student  of  Latin,  for  example, 
may  find  them  regular — must  usually  be  learned,  just  as  one 
learns  a  new  word.  The  list  in  Exercise  7  contains  a  number 
of  the  most  important  of  these  words  of  foreign  origin,  together 
with  some  examples  of  the  classes  discussed  in  Sections  15,  16, 
and  17.  This  list  is  very  important;  each  student  should  learn 
the  proper  forms  of  every  word  in  it  now.  Copy  the  plural 
forms  in  a  column1  beside  the  singulars;  next  cover  the  singulars 
and  write  the  singular  forms  from  the  plurals.  Know  them  all 
before  you  pass  the  page.  Use  the  dictionary  or  a  grammar 
as  much  as  may  be  necessary. 


EXERCISE  7 
Give  the  plurals  of  these  words: 


alumna  (1) 

halo 

louse 

automaton  (8) 

alumnus  (1) 

canto 

child  (6) 

index 

fungus  (2) 

rabbi 

pullman 

hippopotamus  (9) 

potato 

scarf 

beau. 

man-servant 

piano 

axis 

madame 

spoonful 

synthesis  (3} 

seraph 

forget-me-not 

focus  (2) 

basis 

monkey 

red-coat 

genus  (10) 

synopsis 

M 

nucleus 

datum 

Knight-Templar 

M.  (5) 

appendix 

memorandum 

baby  (4) 

Mr. 

analysis 

Henry 

dynamo 

Miss 

amanuensis  (7) 

chief 

1.  What  is  the  difference? 

2.  Watch  your  pronunciation. 

3.  Can  you  find  its  opposite  in  the  list? 


1  Is  this  pronounced  "colyum"? 


Jo  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

4.  What  is  the  possessive? 

5.  Is  this  1  ivneh  for  Mr.  or  is  it  the  letter  Mf    How  do  you  know? 

6.  How  do  you  pronounce  the  plural? 

7.  What  does  this  word  mean?    Is  it  related  to  manual  training? 

8.  Related  to  automobile? 

9.  Look  it  up  in  the  dictionary. 
10.  Is  Edison  a  "genus"? 

19.  Singulars  That  Look  Like  Plurals.     Errors  sometimes 
occur  in  the  use  of  words  that  look  like  plurals  because  they 
end  in  s,  but  which  are  really  singular. ,  The  most  important 
of  these  words  are: 

(a)  Some   names   of   sciences— mathematics,    physics,    ethics,    politics, 

economics,  ct<  . 

(b)  Some  names  of  diseases — measles,  mumps,  shingles,  etc. 

(c)  A  miscellaneous  group  of  words — news,  aeries,  United  States,  gallows. 

Note  that  ways  does  not  belong  to  this  group.    "A  little 
ways"  is  a  gross  blunder;  the  proper  singular  form  is  way. 

20.  Words  Plural  Chiefly  Because  of  Form.     The  following 
words  are  usually  treated  as  plural : 

oats  vitals          proceeds     assets          riches          ashes 

shears         trousers      pincers        tongs          athletics     scissors 

Some  of  these  words  are  occasionally  singular,  however ;  e.  g., 
athletics. 

EXERCISE  8 

For  general  review  of  the  principles  of  forming  plurals, 
answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  A  number  of  nouns  relating  to  music  end  in  o.    How  do  these  form 

their  plurals?    Give  examples. 

2.  How  do  we  form  the  plurals  of  most  foreign  words  ending  in  of    -Give 

examples. 

3.  What  is  the  plural  ending  of  most  nouns  ending  with  sis  in  the  singular? 

Give  examples. 

4.  What  is  the  plural  ending  of  most  nouns  ending  in  us  in  the  singular? 

Give  examples. 

5.  In  what  different  ways  do  we  form  the  plurals  of  compound  words? 

Give  examples. 


NOUNS  27 

6.  In  what  different  ways  do  we  form  the  plurals  of  words  ending  mforfe? 

Give  examples. 

7.  Why  are  the  plurals  of  sky  and  key  formed  differently?     State  the  rule 

for  plurals  of  nouns  ending  in  y. 

21.  Case  of  Nouns.     English  nouns  are  not  inflected  for  case 
except  to  indicate  possession.     The   singular  noun  boy,   for 
instance,  retains  the  same  form  whether  it  is  subject,  or  object, 
or  predicate  noun,  or  is  governed  by  a  preposition. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  The  boy  is  here  (subject). 

(2)  He  hit  the  boy  (object). 

(3)  John  is  the  boy  I  mean  (predicate  noun). 

(4)  He  threw  a  stone  at  the  boy  (with  preposition). 

Only  to  show  possession  is  the  form  changed — boy's.     This  is 
the  genitive  (or  possessive)  case.1 

22.  Genitive  (Possessive)  Forms  of  Nouns.    Singular  nouns 
are  regularly  changed  to  show  possession  just  as  boy  is  changed — 
by  the  addition  of  an  apostrophe  and  s  ('s). 

EXAMPLES  :  child — child's  fox — fox's 

father — father's  mouse — mouse's 

The  plural  commonly  ends  in  s  already,  so  that  the  addition 
of  an  apostrophe  and  another  s  would  usually  be  awkward  and 
almost  unpronounceable.  We  should  not  care  to  say  fathers' s 
or  mothers' s.  If  the  plural  ends  in  s,  then,  we  simply  add  an 
apostrophe  to  indicate  possession. 

EXAMPLES:  Singular  Plural 

brother's  brothers' 

fox's  foxes' 

But  if  the  plural  does  not  end  in  s,  the  possessive  is  formed  as 
for  the  singular,  by  the  addition  of  an  apostrophe  and  s. 
EXAMPLES  :  Singular  Plural 

child's  children's 

mouse's  mice's 

1  For  the  sake  of  uniformity,  the  term  genitive  (long  in  use  in  Latin  and  other  languages) 
has  recently  been  adopted  by  the  Joint  Committee  on  Grammatical  Nomenclature,  ap- 
pointed by  the  National  Education  Association,  the  Modern  Language  Association  of 
America,  and  the  American  Philological  Association.  Because  the  term  possessive  is  better 
known,  however,  it  will  be  used  freely  in  this  book. 


28  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Nouns  which  in  the  singular  end  in  a  form  their  possessives 
in  two  ways. 

(a)  If  they  are  not  very  long,  it  is  usually  considered  pref- 
erable to  have  them  follow  the  regular  rule  for  singulars,  adding 
an  apostrophe  and  s. 

EXAMPLES:    Ordinary  form  .  Possessive 

Burns  Burns's 

Jones  Jones's 

Dickens  Dickens'e 

(b)  But  they  may,  especially  if  long,  add  only  an  apr 
phe.    Thus  Dickens'  is  an  allowable  form,  and,  since  it  would 
be  very  awkward  to  add  an  apostrophe  and  8  to  Demosthenes, 
the  possessive  is  preferably  Demosthenes9. 

It  is  a  common  but  gross  error  to  place  the  apostrophe 
before  the  s  that  belongs  to  the  simple  form  of  the  name. 

EXAMPLES: 

1.  Burn's  books  are  politics  in  poetic  form. 

2.  I  like  Dicken's  David  Copperfield. 

3.  It  was  Wilkin's  first  attempt. 

Remember  that  Burn  and  Dicken  and  Wilkin  are  not  the  names 
meant  here;  the  s  belongs  to  the  name  in  each  case.  Cultivate 
the  habit  of  writing  the  full  name  (Burns,  Dickens,  Wilkins, 
Hopkins,  Jones,  Wittiams — whatever  it  may  be)  and  then 
adding  the  proper  sign  of  possession. 

Compound  nouns  and  names  consisting  of  several  words 
usually  form  their  possessives  regularly,  by  adding  's  to  the  last 
part  of  a  compound  noun  or  the  last  word  in  a  group.  Firm 
names  are  generally  treated  in  the  same  way. 

EXAMPLES:    father-in-law's  The  Union  League  Club's 

Brown  and  Smith's 

23.  The  Use  of  the  Possessive.  Names  of  inanimate 
objects  should  rarely  be  made  possessive,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  we  do  not  readily  think  of  inanimate  objects  as  possessing 


NOUNS  29 

— owning — anything.  Instead  of  the  possessive  (genitive)  form 
we  use  a  phrase,  generally  with  of,  sometimes  with  another 
preposition.  Note  the  following  examples: 

(Undesirable)  (Better) 

The  ball's  cover  The  cover  of  the  ball 

A  word's  pronunciation  The  pronunciation  of  a  word 

Some  exceptions  to  this  rule  occur,  chiefly  in  idiomatic1 
expressions  like  a  day's  work,  last  year's  styles,  etc.  Likewise 
the  possessive  forms  of  month,  week,  fortnight,  hour,  minute,  or 
any  other  noun  designating  time  may  be  used.  In  these  cases, 
as  well  as  in  some  others  not  involving  time  (the  heart's  desire, 
the  water's  edge,  at  his  wit's  end,  etc.),  the  possessive  (genitive) 
form  *  indicates  a  connection  between  the  nouns,  rather  than 
actual  possession;  so  that  the  construction  is  technically  called 
the  genitive  of  connection.  Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  this 
construction  unless  you  are  sure  of  the  idiom.1 

EXERCISE  9 

(a)  Write  the  possessive  forms,  or  equivalents,' for  the  fol- 
lowing words: 

boy  baby  child  National  Education  Association 

sky  babies  Jones  Clark  &  Meyer 

Miss         children        father-in-law2     John,  the  tailor 

(b)  Answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  How  do  we  form  the  possessive  of  singular  nouns? 

2.  How  do  we  form  the  possessive  of  plural  nouns? 

3.  How  do  we  form  the  possessive  of  compound  nouns? 

4.  How  do  we  form  the  possessive  of  firm  names?     Of  name^  consisting 

of  three  or  more  words? 

5.  Is  the  following  rule  correct:     " Always  form  the  possessive  of  plural 

nouns  by  adding  the  apostrophe  only."     How  about  children's? 

6.  How  do  you  form  the  possessive  when  the  plural  does  not  end  in  s; 

for  example,  the  plural  possessive  of  mouse,  goose,  woman,  etc.? 

1For  explanation  of  idiom,  see  the  Glossary  of  Technical  Terms  in  the  Appendix. 
2  Note  the  difference  between  the  plural  and  the  possessive  of  compound  words.   Make 
a  rule  covering  this  difference. 


30  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


EXERCISE  10 

Use  in  sentences  the  possessive  forms,  or  equivalents,  of  the 
following: 

Chicago  Chicago  Commercial  Club  misses  book 

H:iukms  K  injj  of  Spain  princesses  they 

aide-de-camp       Wright  &  Curtis  )»i|>lanes  year 

Kelly  and  Millrr  duchess  life 


QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  II 

1.  Is  a  noun  inflected  (changed)  for  number?    For  case?    For  person? 
For  gender? 

2.  Why  do  we  have  plurals  of  so  many  varieties? 

3.  Why,  in  general,  do  plural  nouns  add  only  the  apostrophe  to  show 
possession? 

4.  How  does  the  plural  of  man-of-war  differ  from  the  possessive? 

5.  Why  do  nouns  representing  inanimate  things  rarely  have  posses- 
sive forms? 

6.  What  are  idiomatic  expressions?  Give  examples  of  several  idiomatic 
expressions  which  employ  possessive  forms  of  nouns  representing  things 
without  life. 


CHAPTER    III 


VERBS 

24.  Inflection  of  Verbs.     Verbs  are  inflected — or  conjugated 
— for  tense,  person,  number,  and  mood;  moreover  they  are  varied, 
by  means  of  verb  phrases,  to  show  voice. 

25.  Tense:  the  Simple  Tenses.     The  .most  extensive  and 
important  inflection  of  verbs  is  for  the  purpose  of  indicating 
time — tense.1    There  are  three  great  divisions  of  time:  the  past, 
the  present,  and  the  future;  for  these  the  simple  forms  of  run 
are  as  follows: 


PRESENT  TENSE 


PAST  TENSE 


FUTURE  TENSE 


26.  The  Perfect  Tenses.  The  simple  tenses  are  not  enough, 
however,  for  we  often  wish  to  speak  of  the  completion  of  an 
act.  We  use  the  word  perfect,  in  this  connection,  to  mean 
completed. 

(a)  Thus  when  we  wish  to  express  the  completion  of  some- 
thing now — in  the  present — we  use  the  present  perfect  tense. 

EXAMPLES: 

I  have  finished  the  work. 

You  have  finished  the  work,  etc.  (through  all  persons  and  both 
numbers). 


First  person 
Second  person 
Third  person 

Singular 
(I)  run 
(you)  run 
(he)  runs2 

Plural 
(we)  run 
(you)  run 
(they)  run 

First  person 
Second  person 
Third  person 

(I)  ran 
(you)  ran 
(he)  ran 

(we)  ran 
(you)  ran 
(they)  ran 

First  person 
Second  person 
Third  person 

(I)  shall  run 
(you)  will  run 
(he)  will  run 

(we)  shall  run 
(you)  will  run 
.  (they)  will  run 

time. 


1The  word  tense  is  related  to  tempo  (music)  and  temporary,  the  root  in  all  meaning 
2Italic  because  of  points  developed  in  Sections  31-33. 

31 


32  VOCATIONAL  ENGL 1  s  1 1 

(b)  When  we  wish  to  say  that  an  act  was  completed  at 
some  time  in  the  past,  we  use  the  past  perfect  tense. 

EXAMPLE  :    He  had  left  when  the  police  arrived. 

Note  that  arrived  is  simple  past  tense,  and  that  had  left  expresses 
an  action  that  took  place — was  completed — before  that  moment 
in  t  he  past  when  the  police  arrived;  i.  e.,  the  past  of  the  past  is 
expressed  by  the  past  perfect. 

(c)  Sometimes  we  look  forward  to  a  time  when  something 
is  to  be  completed;  that  is,  we  look  forward  to  a  time  when  we 
shall  be  looking  back  at  a  completed  act.    The  need  of  express- 
ing this  idea  led  to  our  having  A  future  perfect  tense. 

EXAMPLE  :    I  shall  havt  finished  my  first  chart  by  tomorrow. 

27.  Have  and  the  Perfect  Tenses.    Note  that  the  examples 
of  perfect  tenses  all  begin  with  some  form  of  the  verb  have, 
which  in  the  main  conforms  with  the  conjugation  of  run  given 
in  Section  25. l    Thus  the  present  tense  of  have  is  as  follows: 

Singular  Plural 

First  person  (I)  have  (we)  have 

Second  person  (you)  have  (you)  have 

Third  person  (he)  has*  (they)  have 

Accordingly  the  present  perfect  tense  of  run  is  as  follows: 

Singular  Plural 

First  person  (I)  have  run  (we)  have  run 

Second  person  (you)  have  run  (you)  have  run 

Third  person  (he)  has*  run  (they)  have  run 

Since  the  past  and  the  future  of  have  are  regular  (/  had,  I  shall 
have,  etc.),  the  forms  of  the  past  perfect  and  the  future  perfect 
need  not  be  given  in  detail. 

28.  The  Verb  Be.    The  foregoing  conjugation  applies  to 
most  verbs,  but  not  to  the  most  important  verb  in  the  language 
—the  verb  expressing  existence,  be.    It  has  eight  simple  forms: 
be,  am,  is,  are,  was,  were,  being,  been. 

1  With  a  few  verbs  we  have  another  form  of  the  perfect  tease,  using  be  instead  of  hav*. 

EXAMPLE:     He  is  gone  (generally  equivalent  to  he  has  gone). 
1  Italic  because  of  points  developed  in  Sections  31-33. 


VERBS 


33 


The  conjugation  of  be  for  the  simple  tenses  is  as  follows: 


f  First  person 

PRESENT  TENSE  <  Second  person 
[  Third  person 
f  First  person 

PAST  TENSE        j  Second  person 
(  Third  person 
f  First  person 

FUTURE  TENSE  I  Second  person 
[  Third  person 


Singular 
(I)  am 
(you)  are 
(he)  is 
(I)  was 
(you)  were 
(he)  was 
(I)  shall  be 
(you)  will  be 
(he)  will  be 


Plural 
(we)  are 
(you)  are 
(they)  are 
(we)  were 
(you)  were 
(they)  were 
(we)  shall  be 
(you)  will  be 
(they)  will  be 


The  perfect  tenses  are  formed  as  for  run. 


29.  Progressive  Tense  Forms.  /  run  is  not  the  only  form 
of  the  first  person,  singular,  present  tense.  If  we  wish  to 
express  continued  action  at  the  present  time,  we  say  /  am  run- 
ning. This  is  called  the  progressive  present  form  of  the  verb.  A 
whole  progressive  conjugation  is  possible  for  most  verbs,  which 
may  be  readily  worked  out  by  use  of  the  various  forms  of  be  with 
the  form  of  the  verb  ending  in  ing — the  present  participle. 


EXAMPLES:  Past — ordinary 

progressive 
Future — ordinary 

progressive 
Present  perfect — ordinary 

progressive 
Past  perfect — ordinary 

progressive 


I  ran 

I  was  running 

I  shall  run 

I  shall  be  running 

I  have  run 

I  have  been  running 

I  had  run 

I  had  been  running 


30.  Emphatic  Forms.     Do  and  did  are  often  used  to  make 
what  are  called  emphatic  forms  of  the  verb. 


EXAMPLES: 


Present — ordinary 
emphatic 
Past — ordinary 
emphatic 


I  strike 
I  do  strike 
I  struck 
I  did  strike 


These  forms  occur  only  in  the  present  and  past  tenses  of 
active  verbs.1 


1  See  Section  37. 


34  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Besides  the  use  for  emphasis,  do  and  did  normally  occur  in 
questions.  Thus  we  do  not  say,  "Struck  you  him?"  but,  "Did 
you  strike  him?"  We  do  not  say,  "Live  you  here?"  but,  "Do 
you  live  here?" 

In  negative  assertions,  also,  do  and  did  are  regularly  used. 
We  say,  "I  do  not  live  here."  "I  did  not  strike  him." 

31.  Person  in  Verbs.     The  remaining  inflectional  changes 
in  verbs  are  few  and  can  be  greatly  simplified  by  jf  little  study 
of  the  forms  in  Sections  25-27.    Take  now  the  matter  of 
person,  and  omit  from  consideration  at  this  time  the  future  and 
the  future  perfect  tenses,  because  these  require  special  attention 
(Section  45)  on  account  of  their   uses  of  shall  and  tr/7/. 

Look  at  the  present  and  past  tenses  of  run.  Does  the  first 
person  differ  from  the  second  at  any  point?  Does  the  second 
person  differ  from  the  third?  In  which  tense  is  there  a  differ- 
ence between  the  second  and  third  persons?  In  which  number? 
What  is  the  nature  of  the  difference?  (There  is  a  corresponding 
difference  in  the  present  perfect  tense,  due  to  the  inflection  for 
person  of  the  verb  have  in  the  present  tense.  Explain  this 
difference.) 

32.  Number  in   Verbs.     In  the  matter  of  number,  also, 
examine  the  forms  in  Section  25.     Wherein  is  the  singular 
different  from  the  plural?    Examine  each  tense  separately 
(except  the  future  and  the  future  perfect).    You  should  find  a 
difference  between  the  singular  and  the  plural  in  but  one  place. 
Where  is  it? 

Likewise  in  the  perfect  tenses  (present  and  past)  there  is 
no  difference  between  the  singular  and  plural  forms,  except  the 
difference  that  exists  in  the  verb  have  between  the  third  person 
singular  present  and  all  other  present  forms.  (See  Section  27.) 

In  other  wofds,  the  singular  and  plural  forms  are  all  alike 
for  the  past  tense;  all  alike  for  the  past  perfect  tense;  all  alike 
for  the  present  tense  except  that  the  third  person  singular 
usually  adds  an  s;  all  alike  for  the  present  perfect  tense  except 
that  the  third  person  singular  uses  the  auxiliary  has  instead  of 
have. 


VERBS  35 

33.  Summary  as  to  Person  and  Number.     It  is  now  clear 
that  the  inflection  of  the  English  active  verb  for  person  and 
number  (except  for  the  special  uses  of  shall  and  will  in  the 
future  and  the  future  perfect)  is  noticeable  only  in  the  third 
person  singular  of  the  present  and  present  perfect  tenses,  and 
the  only  variation  consists  in  the  addition  of  "s"  for  this  form  in 
the  present  indicative,  and  the  use  of  has  instead  of  have  in  the 
present  perfect.     This  simplifies   the   whole  matter  of  con- 
jugation greatly. 

Now  since  most  plural  nouns  end  in  s,  and  no  plural  verb 
takes  s,  it  is  clear  that  two  s's  in  subject  and  predicate  seldom 
occur  together. 

EXAMPLE:     Boys  run  (one  s  only). 

On  the  contrary,  sjngular  nouns  rarely  end  in  s,  but  the  letter 
appears  at  the  end  of  most  singular  verbs  of  the  third  person. 

EXAMPLE:     The  boy  runs  (one  s  only). 

34.  Principal  Parts  of  the  Verb.     All  the  inflectional  forms 
we  have  been  discussing  may  be  made  for  any  verb  if  we  know 
three  fundamental  forms  called  the  principal  parts.     Nearly 
always  the  first  of  these  differs  from  the  other  two,  and  often 
the  second  and  third  are  unlike  each  other.     The  principal 
parts  are  the  present  tense,  the  past  tense,  the  past  participle. 

EXAMPLES:          Present  Past  Past  Participle 

unite  united  united 

fill  filled  filled 

burn  burned  (burnt)  burned  (burnt) 

go  went  gone 

do  did  done 

The  majority  of  English  verbs  form  their  principal  parts 
regularly,  adding  d  or  ed  (sometimes  t)  to  the  present  to  make 
the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle;  but  unfortunately  a 
good  many  of  the  verbs  in  most  common  use  are  irregular  and 
cause  a  great  deal  of  trouble. 


36  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  11 

Be  sure  you  know  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs. 
Write  them;  use  them  in  sentences.     Don't  think  you  know 
them;  prove  to  yourself  that  you  do. 
ask  Always  add  ed  (pronounced  as  if  it  PM I    for  the  past  tense  and 

the  past  participle. 

be  The  most  important  verb  in  the  language. 

ln-at  Watch  the  third  form. 

begin         Don't  say  /  begun,  and  don't  say  have  began, 
bid  (meaning  to  command)        1  The  principal  parts  of  the 
bid  (meaning  to  offer  money)    /     two  verbs  differ. 
blow          Is  there  such  a  word  as  blowedt 

break         Broke  is  the  past  tense,  but  is  not  to  be  usr.l  with  have, 
bring         How  about  brungf 

burst         Can  you  find  a  verb  bust  in  the  dictionary? 
catch         Watch  your  pronunciation.    Has  a  ball  team  a  ketcherf 
come         Watch  the  past,  and  don't  use  the  past  tense  with  have, 
curse         How  about  custt  j, 

<livc  Avoid  the  form  ddve. 

do  Avoid  /  done—  why? 

drag          Is  drug  the  past  tense? 
draw         Three  different  forms. 
drink        The  last  two  forms  are  not  alike. 

cat  Three  different  forms,  and  none  of  them  is  pronounced  it. 

flee         ] 
flow        \  These  three  are  often  confused. 

fly        j 

give  The  past  tense  is  not  like  the  present. 

go  Do  you  ever  say,  "I  have  went"? 

grow  Growed  is  not  to  be  forgiven. 

hang  (to  execute)    A  man  is  hanged. 

hang  (to  suspend)    A  picture  is  hung. 

have  Do  not  write  or  pronounce  of  when  you  mean  have. 

heat  Avoid  hct. 

know         Is  there  such  a  form  as  knowedt 

lay  1  Be  sure  you  get  these  right;  most  people  do  not. 

lie  /      Is  there  a  form  layedt 

lose  Is  loose  a  form  of  this  verb? 

pay  Spell  the  past  correctly.    Be  sure. 

ride  Never  use  rode  with  have. 

ring  Do  you  ever  say,  "The  bell  has  rang"t 

run  Never  say,  "I  run  all  the  way  to  school  this  morning."  Why? 

see  Don't  use  the  third  form  for  the  second. 


VERBS  37 

set  1  These  are  important 

sit  I      and  often  confused. 

shine  1  Distinguish  carefully  between 

show  )      shone  and  shown. 

sing  Use  different  forms  for  the  second  and  third  parts. 

sow  Three  different  forms. 

speak         Three  different  forms. 

spring       Three  different  forms. 

steal  Is  the  past  stoldf 

swim         The  third  form  is  swum. 

swing         How  about  swangf 

take  Do  you  ever  use  took  with  have? 

throw         The  past  is  not  throwed,  nor  is  it  trun! 

write          Three  different  forms. 

35.  Confusion  of  Past  Tense  and  Past  Participle.     Probably 
the  most  numerous  and  the  worst  errors  in  the  use  of  English 
verbs  occur  through  a  failure  to  distinguish  between  the  second 
and  the  third  principal  parts  of  irregular  verbs.     The  second 
is  the  simple  past  tense;  the  third  is  the  past  participle  and  is 
used  (with  some  form  of  have)  in  all  perfect  tenses.     Thus  the 
principal  parts  of  go  being, 

Present — go  Past — went  Past  participle — gone 

the  form  with  have  (has,  had)  must  be  gone;  yet  how  often  do 
we  hear,  I  had  went! 

This  error  requires  much  self-checking.  There  is  a  story 
of  a  small  boy  who,  as  a  punishment  for  having  written  /  have 
went,  was  told  by  his  teacher  to  remain  after  school  and  write 
/  have  gone  fifty  times.  When  the  teacher  returned  to  her 
room  after  ten  minutes'  absence,  she  found  the  phrase  written 
the  required  fifty  times,  followed  by  the  note: 

Dear  Teacher: 

I  have  wrote  I  have  gone  fifty  times  and  I  have  went  home. 

Willie 

36.  The  "I  seen"  Error.     The  counterpart  of  the  -"I  had 

went"  error  (which  consists  in  the  use  of  the  second  principal 
part  where  the  third  is  required)  occurs  when  the  third 
of  the  principal  parts  is  used  by  itself  as  the  whole  verb  (instead 


38  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

of  with  some  form  of  have).  The  use  of  /  seen,  I  done,  I  drunk, 
I  begun,  etc.,  is  one  of  the  crudest  errors  in  English  speech. 
Crude  as  such  errors  are,  very  many  people  have,  at  some 
time  in  life,  to  fight  them.  The  law  of  labor  holds  good  in 
English  as  in  other  things  of  worth — one  must  work  for  what 
he  gets.  We  speak  too  rapidly  and  far  too  carelessly.  A  bad 
habit  is  hard  to  break.  It  can  be  replaced  by  a  good  habit  only 
by  fighting  back  over  lost  ground.  Do  you  ever  use  any  of  the 
second  principal  parts  with  have,  or  any  of  the  third  principal 

parts  with  I 1 

EXERCISE  12 

Insert  the  correct  verb  forms  in  the  following  sentences: 

1 .  (lose)  He  did  not the  ring. 

2.  (flee)  The  robber up  the  alley. 

3.  (dive)  The  boy off  the  pier.    (Is  of  needed  too?) 

4.  (pay)  The  men  were each  \v « <  k. 

5.  I  was  so  tired  yesterday,  I  just down  and  fell  asleep. 

6.  (blow)      The  wind very  hard  all  night. 

7.  (see— do)  I my  duty  and  I it. 

8.  (swim)    They  had across  the  river  above  the  dam. 

9.  (begin)     I  had  already the  w< >rk . 

10.  (bid)         I my  old  friend  good-bye. 

1 1 .  (hang)      The  horsethief  was promptly. 

1'J.  (flow)  The  river by  the  old  city  for  two  centuries. 

13.  (burst)  The  tank suddenly. 

1 1.  (drink)  I  have his  health  for  the  last  time. 

15.  (show)  I  have him  the  errors. 

16.  (bid)  I two  hundred  dollars,  but  it  was  not  enough. 

17.  (beat)  The  driver his  horses  shamefully. 

18.  (steal)  The  burglars the  automobile. 

19.  (lay)  He his  right  hand  on  my  shoulder. 

20.  (throw)  The  catcher  quickly him  out  at  first. 

21.  (grow)  He  has  never up. 

22.  (come)  I in  suddenly. 

23.  (drag)  They the  cannon  up  the  hill.     (How  many  did  they 

drag?    Can  you  tell?) 

24.  (curse)     The  driver volubly. 

25.  (sow)        The  grain  was early. 

26.  (lose — loose)     He  knew  he  would  the  horse  the  minute  it 

was 

27.  (swing)     The  woodman his  ax. 


VERBS  30 

37.  Voice.  Another  important  variation  in  verb  forms  is 
used  to  indicate  whether  the  verb  represents  its  subject  as 
acting  or  acted  upon. 

A  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  active  voice  when  its  subject  is 
the  doer  of  the  action. 

EXAMPLE  :     John  struck  James. 

The  forms  given  in  Section  25  are  all  active. 

A  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  passive  voice  when  its  subject 
is  the  receiver  of  the  action;  in  other  words,  the  subject  is 
acted  upon  instead  of  acting — is  passive. 

EXAMPLE  :     James  was  struck  by  John. 

The  passive  verb  has  a  special  conjugation,  consisting  of 
the  forms  of  the  verb  be  and  the  past  participle — the  third  of 
the  principal  parts.  In  the  example  just  given  we  have  the 
past  passive,  consisting  of  tjie  past  tense  of  be  plus  the  past 
participle  of  strike — struck.  From  this  hint  the  full  passive 
conjugation  can  easily  be  worked  out. 

There  are  two  ways  of  recognizing  a  passive.  The  first  is 
based  on  form.  Some  form  of  the  verb  be  and  the  past  parti- 
ciple, or  last  principal  part,  are  usually  sufficient  to  mark  a 
passive.  The  second  method  has  to  do  with  the  meaning.  If 
the  subject  names  the  receiver  of  the  action  expressed  in  the 
verb,  the  verb  is  passive.  Recollection  of  this  point  will  pre- 
vent confusion  between  the  passive  and  the  progressive  forms 
(Section  29).  Thus  I  am  striking  is  progressive  (and  active), 
for  I  am  acting;  but  I  am  struck  is  passive,  for  I  am  acted  upon. 
The  forms  also  help  here,  since  striking  is  the  present  participle; 
struck,  the  past  participle.  It  is  the  past  participle  that  is  used 
in  making  passives. 

38.  Changing  from  Active  to  Passive.  On  examining  closely 
the  examples  in  the  preceding  section,  you  will  notice  that  in 
the  first  sentence  in  which  the  active  is  used,  James,  the  name 
of  the  receiver  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb  struck,  is 
the  direct  object.  But  when  the  verb  is  made  passive,  so  that 


!«)  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

the  sentence  reads,  "James  was  struck  by  John/1  James,  the 
name  of  the  receiver  of  the  action,  becomes  the  subject;  and 
John,  the  name  of  the  doer  of  the  action,  which  was  the  subject 
of  the  active  verb,  becomes  the  principal  word  of  a  phrase 
telling  by  whom  the  action  was  performed.  In  other  words, 
the  subject  of  the  passive  verb  is  the  same  word  that  was  the 
object  of  the  corresponding  active  verb,  for  the  reason  that 
l>oth  the  subject  of  a  passive  verb  and  the  object  of  an  active 
verb  are  receivers  of  the  action. 

In  cases  in  which  there  are  two  objects  of  an  active  verb — a 
•  lnvrt  and  an  indirect  object,  for  example — the  change  to  the 
passive  may  be  made  in  two  ways. 

EXAMPLE  :    John  gave  James  a  book. 

In  this  case  book  is  the  direct  object,  James  the  indirect  object. 
Changing  the  verb  to  passive,  we  may  write  either,  "James  was 
given  a  book  by  John,"  or,  "A  book  was  given  James  by  John." 
That  is,  either  the  direct  or  the  indirect  object  may  become  the 
subject.  In  the  first  case,  in  which  the  indirect  object  becomes 
the  subject,  the  direct  object  is  retained  after  the  passive  verb 
and  is  called  a  retained  object.  In  the  second  case,  in  which  the 
direct  object  becomes  the  subject,  the  indirect  object  remains 
unchanged  in  construction  and  meaning,  naming  the  person 
to  whom  the  book  was  given. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  sentences  in  this  section  con- 
taining passive  verbs  are  rather  indirect  and  awkward — are 
longer  and  less  forceful  than  the  example  with  an  active  verb. 
This  is  generally  true  in  English.  While  there  are,  of  course, 
many  cases  in  which  a  passive  verb  expresses  the  meaning  more 
exactly  than  an  active  verb,  it  is  wise  to  challenge  each  passive; 
to  ask  yourself  whether  the  corresponding  active  form  would 
not  be  less  vague,  more  direct,  more  forcible. 

39.  Verb  Signs.  Now  that  we  have  discussed  the  main 
elements  of  inflection  in  verbs,  it  is  possible  to  sum  up  the 
whole  matter  in  such  a  way  that  the  student  can  readily 
recognize  and  construct  the  most  important  forms  of  any 


VERBS  41 

English  verb.  Learn  the  following  signs  of  verb  formation, 
aM  you  will  have  little  difficulty  in  making  any  form  you  want : 

1.  Perfect — have  (has,  had)  and  the  past  participle. 

2.  Future — shall  or  will.     (See  Section  45.) 

3.  Infinitive — to. 

4.  Present  participle — ing. 

5.  Passive — some  form  of  be  and  the  past  participle. 

6.  Emphatic  forms — do  and  did  (only  the  present  and  past 

active) . 

7.  Progressive  active — some  form  of  be  and  the  present 

participle. 

8.  Progressive   passive — being   between-  the   prarts   of  the 

simple  passive. 

With  a  little  practice  the  use  of  the  verb  signs  becomes  easy. 
Let  us  form  the  present  perfect  passive  of  the  verb  drive.  The 
principal  parts  of  this  verb  are: 

Present — drive  Past — drove  Past  participle — driven 

According  to  1,  above,  the  present  perfect  calls  for  have  and 
the  past  participle,  driven.  The  passive  calls  for  a  form  of  be — 
in  this  case,  been,  because  of  the  use  with  have.  Assembling  our 
conclusions  we  have:  have  been  driven. 

Again,  suppose  the  past  progressive  passive  of  drive  is 
wanted.  By  observation  of  the  verb  signs  we  find: 

For  passive — some  form  of  be  (was — past)  and  the  past  participle 

(driven). 

Progressive  passive — being  between  the  parts  of  the  simple  passive. 
Putting  these  forms  together — was  being  driven. 

40.  Recognition  of  Verb  Forms.  Similarly,  any  given  verb 
form  may  be  identified  and  named  by  use  of  the  system 
explained  in  the  preceding  section.  Suppose  you  are  Jo  decide 
what  form  shall  have  been  driven  is.  By  reference  to  the  verb 
signs  you  note: 

shall — future. 

have — perfect. 

been  (be)  with  past  participle — passive. 

Answer:    the  future  perfect  passive. 


42  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  13 

1.  Write  the  forms  used  with  /  for  the  verb  drive,  active 
and  passive,1  for  the  three  simple  tenses. 

2.  Do  the  same  for  the  three  perfect  tenses. 

3.  Write  the  emphatic  forms  for  drive.     (Remember  that 
these  occur  only  in  the  present  and  past  active.) 

4.  Write  five  participle  forms  for  drive.     (Include  the  past 
participle,  which  does  not  end  in  ing.) 

EXERCISE  14 

Write  the  following  forms  of  strike,  by  the  aid  of  the  vorl> 
signs: 

1.  Past  perfect  active,  first  person  singular. 

2.  Past  perfect  passive,  second  person. 
Future  perfect  passive,  third  person  singular. 

4.  Present  active  infinit 

5.  Present  passive  infinit i\«. 

6.  Perfect  passive  participle.1 

7.  Present  passive  participle. 

8.  Present  perfect  passive,  first  person  singular. 

9.  Present  act i\t-  participle. 

10.  Future  active,  third  person  singular. 

1 1.  Future  perfect  active,  second  person. 

12.  Present  active  infinitive. 

EXERCISE  15 

(a)  Name  the  following  verb  forms.    Use  the  method  ex- 
plained in  Section  40. 

I  shall  have  struck  being  struck 

to  have  been  struck  I  have  been  striking 

to  strike  I  was  struck 

to  be  struck  I  was  being  struck 

had  struck  I  have  been  struck 

I  am  striking  I  shall  have  been  struck 

I  wtts,  striking  I  do  strike 

I  shall  be  striking  I  am  struck 

having  struck  I  am  being  struck 

having  been  struck  I  did  strike 

striking  I  had  been  striking 

1  In  forming  a  present  passive,  use  the  present  of  the  verb  be;  in  forming  a  past  passive, 
use  the  past  of  the  verb  be,  etc.     See  Sec.  28. 

'  Called  phrasal  past  participle  by  the  Committee  on  Grammatical  Nomenclature. 


VERBS  43 

(b)  Write  the  names  of  the  verb  forms  in  (a) .  Close  the 
book  and  write  the  forms  from  the  names.  Compare  with  the 
book. 

Practice  using  the  verb  signs  until  you  are  thoroughly 
familiar  with  English  verb  forms. 

41.  Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs.     Thus  far  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  verbs  we  have  been  concerned  with  matters  of 
inflectional  form.     There  are  certain  classifications  as  to  mean- 
ing, however,  that  require  consideration. 

Some  verbs,  by  their  meaning,  require  an  object. 

EXAMPLE  :    John  struck  James. 

As  the  verb  is  used  here,  the  meaning  is  incomplete  unless  we 
are  told  whom  John  struck.  Such  a  verb  is  called  transitive. 
Trans  means  across;  the  action  is  carried  across  from  John  to 
James. 

Other  verbs  are  complete  without  an  object,  a  receiver  of 
the  action,  and  are  said  to  be  intransitive. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  Birds  fly. 

(2)  The  sun  rises  earlier  in  summer. 

Many  verbs  may  be  either  transitive  or  intransitive,  accord- 
ing to  some  variation  in  meaning.  Thus  fly,  intransitive  in  the 
example  just  given,  may  be  transitive. 

EXAMPLE  :     Boys  fly  kites. 

Since  only  transitive  verbs  imply  a  receiver  of  the  action,  a 
person  or  thing  acted  upon,  only  transitive  verbs  can  be  used- 
in  the  passive  voice.  Therefore  whenever  you  see  a  passive 
construction  you  will  know  that  the  verb  is  transitive. 

A  number  of  common  errors  in  the  use  of  verbs  will  dis- 
appear if  one  understands,  and  is  careful  to  observe,  the  dis- 
tinction between  transitive  and  intransitive.  The  following 
sections  will  deal  with  a  few  of  the  most  troublesome  of  these. 

42.  Sit    and  Set.     Sit   is    ordinarily    intransitive — cannot 
have  a  direct  object — and  indicates  that  some  person  or  thing 
takes  a  certain  position.     Set  is  transitive  in  its  most  common 


44  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

uses  and  means  to  put  or  place  some  person  or  thing  (it* 
object).  The  principal  parts  of  these  verbs  are: 

Present         Pott  Past  Participle 

Sit  (intransitive)        sit  sat  sat 

Set  (transitive)          set  set  srt 

Some  people  have  the  idea  that  things  with  life  sit,  find  that 
inanimate  objects  set;  but  there  is  no  such  (list inct ion.  The 
best  test  is  usually  the  transitive  test.  Where  a  passive  form 
is  needed,  only  the  transitive  verb  can  be  used.  Why?  Because 
only  transitive  verbs  have  passive  voice. 

There  are  a  number  of  idiomatic  uses  of  set  to  which  the 
distinction  just  emphasized  does  not  apply. 

EXAMPLES:    The  sun  set*  at  seven  o'clock. 
We  set  out  on  A  cold  day. 
I  set  about  my  task  at  once. 

These  are  cases  in  which  set  does  not  have  its  most  common 
meaning — to  place  or  put — and  in  which  confusion  with  sit 
seldom  occurs. 

EXERCISE  16 

Fill  the  blanks  below  with  the  proper  forms  of  sit  and  set: 

1.  the  inkstand  on  the  window-sill,  and  let  it there. 

2.  The  fanner a  trap  for  the  fox,  but  caught  instead  his 

hen. 

3.  The  practice  of hens  has  given  over  to  the  incubator. 

4.  The  hen  was in  the  mow. 

5.  He  had  his  heart on  a  new  watch,  and  he up  waiting 

for  his  father. 

6.  The  man something  by  the  side  of  the  road.    From  where 

I I  could  not  see  him  clearly. 

7.  I  used  to  like  to his  slippers  by  the  chair  where  he  usually 


8.  The  trees  were out. 

9.  The  edges  were in  about  two  inches. 

10.  They out  for  London  at  six  o'clock. 

11.  The  baby  was in  his  high  chair  each  morning  and  he  patiently 

till  noon. 

12.  I  have the  alarm  for  four  o'clock. 


VERBS  45 

13.  He  was  in  the ing  room ing  down  the  day's  expenses. 

14.  down  for  a  minute  until  I the  table. 

15    The  sun far  too  soon  that  day. 

43.  Lie  and  Lay.  Lie,  like  sit,  is  intransitive,  and  likewise 
means  that  some  person  or  thing  assumes  or  maintains  a  certain 
position.1  Lay,  like  set,  is  transitive  in  its  most  common  uses, 
and  means  to  put  or  place.  Difficulties  occur  here  partly 
because  the  past  tense  of  lie  is  spelled  like  the  present  tense  of 
lay,  and  partly  because  many  people  are  unable  to  distinguish 
between  laid  and  lain.  The  principal  parts  must  therefore  be 
very  carefully  learned  and  fixed  in  the  mind  by  exercises  in 
the  use  of  the  correct  forms. 

Present  Past  Past  Participle 

Lie  (intransitive)  lie  lay  lain 

Lay  (transitive)  lay  laid2  laid2 

EXERCISE  17 

Fill  the  blanks  below  with  the  proper  forms  of  lay  or  lie: 

1.  I  had the  keys  away  and  forgotten  them. 

2.  The  eggs  were that  day. 

3.  The  cable at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean. 

4.  Under  the  wide  and  starry  sky, 

Dig  the  grave  and  let  me 

Glad  did  I  live  and  gladly  die, 

And  I me  down  with  a  will.  — Stevenson 

5.  But  little  he'll  reck,  if  they  let  him  sleep  on 

In  a  grave  where  a  Briton  has him.  — Wolfe 

6.  Now  I me  down  to  sleep. 

7.  I  down  a  few  minutes  yesterday.     (Say  this  sentence  five 

times.) 

8.  He  came  upon  us  suddenly  and  to  hide  we  hurriedly down  in 

the  tall   grass. 

9.  " down,"  said  Mur£>hy.     I down  instantly. 

10.  How  long  have  the  papers in  that  drawer? 

11.  He  had  something away  for  a  rainy  day. 

12.  ing  in  mud  up  to  one's  belt  is  not  conducive  to  good  fighting. 

13.  I  like  to in  bed  and  hear  the  rain  upon  the  roof. 

14.  The  great  ships  were ing  in  port  while  the  sailors  were . 

the  cable. 


1  Lie,  meaning  to  tell  an  untruth,  is  a  different  word,  not  requiring  consideration  here. 

2  Never  spell  this  form  layed. 


46  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

44.  Rise  and  liaise.  The  verb  rise,  meaning  to  move 
upward,  is  intniiiMtivr;  raise,  meaning  to  cause  to  move 
upward,  to  lift,  is  transitive.  The  principal  parts  are: 

Pr«a§*  Past  Past  Participle 

Rise    (intransitive)  rise  rose1  risen 

Raise  (transitive)  raise    •          raised  raised 

The  use  of  raise  as  a  noun  (He  got  a  raise  in  pay)  is  careless 
English;  "He  got  (or  received)  an  increase"  is  better. 

EXERCISE  18 

Fill  the  blanks  below  with  the  proper  forms  of  raise  or  rise: 

1.  They the  old  boat. 

2.  The  deacon himself  on  his  elbow  and  spoke. 

3.  The  water  had  already to  the  top  of  the  boat. 

4.  The  men suddenly  from  the  grass. 

5.  Truth  crushed  to  eartn  will again.  — Bryant 

6.  The  lawyer to  state  that  they  had the  money. 

7.  Corn  is in  Illinois. 

45.  Shall  and  Will.  In  the  partial  conjugations  in 
Sections  25  and  28,  the  regular  forms  of  the  simple  future  tense 
are  given — 7  shall  run,  you  will  run,  he  will  run;  I  shall  be,  you 
will  be,  he  will  be,  etc.  Because  humanity  is  not  inclined  to 
discriminate  in  seemingly  small  matters,  there  is  a  tendency 
to  drop  the  distinction  between  shall  and  will,  and  a  great 
many  people  have  lost  all  feeling  of  a  difference.  Errors  occur 
mainly  in  the  first  person.  Since  will  is  the  commoner  form 
for  the  simple  future,  being  used  with  both  second  and  third 
persons,  people  use  it  also  with  /  and  we,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  /  will  or  we  will  literally  means,  /  intend  or  am  determined; 
we  intend  or  are  determined.  That  is,  will  with  the  first  person 
has  a  much  stronger  meaning  than  simple  future.  It  is  dan- 
gerous, therefore,  to  act  on  the  assumption  that  it  makes  no 
difference  which  form  you  use.  The  use  of  will  for  shall  is 
likely  to  make  a  bad  impression. 

1  Do  you  know  three  other  words  pronounced  exactly  like  this  verb  form? 


VERBS  47 

(a)  Shall  and  will  in  independent  statements. 

For  simple  futurity:  For  volition   (desire),   promise, 

or  determination: 

(I,  we)  shall  (I,  we)  will 

(you)  will  (you)  shall* 

(he,  they,  and  all  nouns)  will  (he,  they,  and  all  nouns)  shall* 

The  starred  forms  are  less  common  than  the  others.  They 
show  not  only  determination,  but  a  degree  of  unpleasant 
insistence  due,  it  might  be,  to  anger.  They  would  be  used,  for 
instance,  by  a  father  whose  son  has  refused  to  do  as  he  had 
been  told.  The  father  would  say  in  a  determined  way,  "He 
shall  go."  It  would  not  be  polite  for  a  superior,  in  giving 
orders,  to  use  the  form  "you  shall,"  and  it  would  doubtless 
cause  resentment.  He  would  use  "you  will,"  meaning,  of 
course,  to  convey  an  order,  but  in  a  polite  manner.  Military 
orders  read :  "Captain  Reynolds  will  march"  at  daybreak,"  etc. 
If,  however,  Captain  Reynolds  should  refuse,  his  superior  could 
insist  by  the  less  polite,  but  more  forceful,  "Captain  Reynolds 
shall,"  etc. 

(b)  Shall  and  will  in  questions. 

In  the  first  person  ordinarily  use  shall.1  Will  with  the  first 
person  means  want  to.  It  would  be  nonsense  for  the  speaker 
to  ask  of  a  second  person,  "Do  I  want  to  go?"  But  if  one  were 
asked,  "Will  you  go  with  me?"  one  might  answer,  "Will  I? 
I  should  say  so!"  i 

In  the  second  and  third  persons  use  the  word  expected  in  the 
reply.  That  is,  if  the  speaker  wants  a  promise  from  another, 
he  expects  the  words  "I  will."  His  question  should  be,  accord- 
ingly, "Will  you?"  If  the  speaker  wishes  only  to  know  about 
future  probability,  he  will  expect  the  reply,  "I  shall,"  and  if 
he  is  careful  he  will  use  "shall  you"  in  the  question. 

EXAMPLES  in  second  person: 

Q.  Shall  you  be  in  Boston  this  month? 

A.  No,  I  think  I  shall  not  go  so  far  east,  or, 

Yes,  I  shall  be  there  next  week.     (The  reply  does  not  contain 
a  promise,  and  none  was  asked.) 


1  Will  we  would  be  allowable  in  putting  a  question  to  vote.     Why? 


48  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Q.  Witt  you  do  me  a  favor? 

A.  Of  course  I  will.     (In  this  case  a  promise  was  asked  and  given.} 
EXAMPLES  in  third  person: 

Q.  Will  he  come  next  week? 

A.  I  think  he  will  (simple  future). 

Q.  Shall  he  mow  the  lawn  today?     (A  request  for  directions.) 

A.  He  shall  i     (I  wish  it— volition.) 

(c)  Shall  and  will  in  subordinate  clauses. 

Difficulties  in  most  subordinate  clauses  will  be  solved  if  a 
form*  is  used  corresponding  to  that  required  on  a  change  of  the 
subordinate  to  a  principal  clause. 

EXAMPLES: 

(1)  Mr.  Smith  says  he  shall  be  down  in  a  few  minutes.1     (Mr. 

Smith's  direct  statement  of  the  matter  was,  "I  shall  be 
down  in  a  few  minutes.'1) 

(2)  Mr.  Roberts  says  he  will  do  your  errand.    (Mr.  Roberts'  state- 

ment was  a  promise,  "I  will/'  etc.) 

(3)  He  thinks  you  will  be  elected.     (He  expressed  his  thought 

as  simple  future,  "You  will  probably  be  elected.") 

(4)  He  fears  he  shall  be  defeated.1    (He  expressed  his  fear  as 

simple  fut  u  P.  shall  be  defeat* 

(5)  He  is  resolved  that  he  will  not  go.     (He  expressed  deter- 

mination, "I  will  not  go.") 

46.  Should  and  Would.  Should  is  in  origin  the  past  tense 
of  shall,  would  the  past  tense  of  will;  and  in  general  the  uses  of 
the  words  correspond  to  these  facts.  Th'e  same  errors  occur 
as  with  shall  and  will.  Thus  would  is  used  altogether  too  much 
with  the  first  person  when  it  is  not  meant  to  imply  intention 
or  determination.  For  instance,  "I  wouldn't  do  it  if  I  were 
you"  is  not  a  careful  statement.  Witt  is  too  strong  a  word  for 
the  place;  hence  would  is  also  too  strong.  "I  shouldn't  do  it 
if  I  were  you"  is  better  unless  the  speaker  feels  very  strongly 
on  the  subject. 

1  A  courteous  reply  would  avoid  the  actual  use  of  shall  here,  though  it  might  really 
be  meant.  But  in  the  question  shall  is  necessary. 

*  In  this  sentence  will  would  very  commonly  be  used,  and  could  be  defended  because 
Mr.  Smith  may  have  expressed  an  intention. 

*  In  this  case,  perhaps  because  it  immediately  follows  he,  will  would  probably  be  used 
by  all  but  the  most  careful  speakers. 


VERBS  49 

In  subordinate  clauses,  especially  in  indirect  discourse 
(expressing  another's  thought  in  your  own  words),  use  should 
if  the  form  in  the  direct  statement  is  shall;  would  if  the  form  in 
the  direct  statement  is  will.  Thus  the  examples  near  the  end 
of  the  preceding  section  will  read  as  follows  if  changed  to  past 
tense: 

1.  Mr.  Smith  said  he  should  be  down  in  a  few  minutes. 

2.  Mr.  Roberts  said  he  would  do  your  errand. 

3.  He  thought  you  would  be  elected. 

4.  He  feared  he  should  be  defeated. 

5.  He  was  resolved  that  he  would  not  go. 

Besides  the  uses  of  should  and  would  as  the  past  of  shall 
and  will,  there  are  also  some  special  uses  to  be  distinguished. 

Thus  should,  even  with  the  first  person,  may  be  equivalent 
to  ought  to. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  He  should  pay  his  debts. 

(2)  I  should  tell  you  but  I  won't. 

In  speech  this  use  of  should  is  easily  distinguished  by  emphasis 
'from  the  should  that  merely  corresponds  to  shall.    In  writing 
one  has  to  judge  by  the  context. 

Would  is  also  used  to  mean  habitual  or  customary  action. 

EXAMPLE  :    He  would  sit  on  a  cold  stone  all  day  and  fish. 
EXERCISE   19 

Fill  in  the  blanks  below  with  shall  or  will,  or  should  or 
would: 

1.  I get  my  death  of  cold. 

2.  "I "  is  the  motto  of  Chicago. 

3. you  see  your  brother  in  Clevela  nd? 

4. you  give  me  some  advice? 

5.  Hello,  Mr.  Jamison, you  be  busy  tonight?    If  not, you 

help  at  the  church  fair? 

6.  I be  working  at  the  office  tonight,  but  I help  you 

tomorrow  evening. 

7.  We succeed;  on  that  we  are  determined. 

8.  The  driver  said  he not  go  (should  or  would?) . 


50  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

9.  We do  our  duty  in  this  caae. 

10.  my  men  go  to  work  for  you  now? 

11.  I  not  ha\'<'  hrlirvrd  it. 

12.  She  feared  they be  lost  on  the  hillside. 

13.  He pay  the  entire  bill,  or  I sue  him. 

14.  -     — ^he  be  expelled  from  school?    Certainly,  he ;  I  cannot 

have  such  boys  about. 

15.  He  said  he go  for  you. 

16.  By  this  time  it  was  late  and  I  had  to  run  or  I  . have  been  late 

at  school. 

17.  By  Heaven,  he feel  the  force  of  my  anger! 

18.  Tomorrow  he feel  sorry. 

Quote  the  following  indirectly: 

19.  "I  will  go,"  said  he. 

20.  "I  shall  be  in  Toledo  Tuesday/'  she  told  Allen. 

21.  "Shall  you  be  going,  too?"  asked  Tom. 

22.  'They  will  go,"  said 

47.  Mood  in  Verbs.    Thus  far  we  have  paid  no  attention 
to  the  mood  of  verbs — the  variations  in  form  to  indicate  the 
manner  of  the  action.    The  forms  given  in  Sections  25-30  are 
all  of  the  indicative  mood,  which  is  ordinarily  used  in  making  t 
assertions  and  asking  questions.    An  overwhelming  majority 
of  the  verbs  in  everyday  speech  and  writing  are  indicative. 

In  direct  and  forcible  commands  the  imperative  mood  is  used; 
but  as  this  occurs  only  in  the  second  person  present  (both 
singular  and  plural),  and  as  it  has  but  one  form  in  each  voice, 
which  in  the  active  is  identical  with  the  first  of  the  principal 
parts,  no  difficulties  occur  in  relation  to  it. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  Goto  your  places. 

(2)  "Strike  while  the  iron  is  hot." 

(3)  Be1  men  if  you  can. 

Difficulties  in  relation  to  mood  center  entirely  around  the 
subjunctive,  which  is  used  to  express  wish,  condition,  etc.,  in 
certain  special  ways  explained  in  Sections  49  and  50. 

48.  Forms  of  the  Subjunctive.     While  in  theory  there  is  a 
full  subjunctive  conjugation,  it  differs  from  the  indicative  in 

1  Note  that  be  ia  an  exception  to  the  general  rule  that  the  imperative  ia  like  the  firat 
person,  singular,  present  indicative. 


VERBS  51 

so  few  places  that  the  simplest  manner  of  treatment  is  merely 
to  fix  the  attention  on  these  differences,  as  follows: 

(a)  In  all  verbs  except  be  there  is  no  difference  between  the 
indicative  and  the  subjunctive  in  the  active  voice,  except  in 
the  third  person,  singular,  present,  where  the  subjunctive  drops 
the  final  s  of  the  indicative  form;1  and  in  the  third  person, 
singular,  present  perfect,  where  the  subjunctive  is  made  with 
have  instead  of  has. 

EXAMPLES  for  present  tense : 

Indicative  Subjunctive 

He  loves  If  he  love 

He  has  the  strength  If  he  have  the  strength 

(b)  The  verb  be  has  a  more  varied  subjunctive  conjugation. 
Examine  carefully  the  following  forms  of  the  simple  tenses : 

Present  tense 

Indicative  Subjunctive 

Singular    1st            I  am  if  I  be 

2d            you  are  if  you  be 

3d             he  is  if  he  be 

Plural        1st           we  are  if  we  be 

2d             you  are  if  you  be 

3d             they  are  if  they  be 

Note  that  the  subjunctive  form  is  be  throughout — in  every 
case  different  from  the  indicative.  The  present  progressive 
subjunctive  and  the  present  passive  subjunctive  of  any  transi- 
tive verb  similarly  have  be  throughout. 

EXAMPLES  :     If  he  be  striking  (progressive) 
If  he  be  struck  (passive) 

Past  tense 

Indicative  Subjunctive 

Singular    1st            I  was  if  I  were 

2d             you  were  if  you  were 

3d             he  was  if  he  were 

Plural        1st            we  were  f             if  we  were 

2d             you  were  if  you  w ere 

3d             they  were  if  they  were 

1  In  the  case  of  the  verb  have,  the  subjunctive  is  have  where  the  indicative  is  has. 


52  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Note  that  the  subjunctive  form  is  were  throughout,  but  that 
it  varies  from  the  indicative  in  only  the  first  and  the  third  person 
singular.  The  past  progressive  subjunctive  and  the  past 
passive  subjunctive  similarly  have  were  throughout. 

EXAMPLES:     If  I  (he)  were  striking  (progressive) 
If  I  (he)  were  struck  (passive) 

To  sum  up  the  matter  in  a  different  way,  the  only  cases  in 
common  use  in  which  the  subjunctive  differs  from  the  indicative 
are: 

(a)  Present  subjunctive  of  be  —  be  in  all  persons  and  both  numbers, 
u  here  the  indicative  has  am,  w,  are.    This  applies  also  to  cases  in  which 
be  is  used  as  an  auxiliary;  i.  e.,  in  the  progressive  and  passive  conjugations. 

(b)  Past  subjunctive  of  be  —  were  in  all  persons  and  both  numbers; 
different  from  the  indicative  only  in  the  singular,  first  and  third  persons, 
u  h<  re  the  indicative  is  was.    This  applies  to  cases  in  which  be  (were)  is  an 
auxiliary. 

(c)  Third  person,  singular,  present  subjunctive  of  all  other  verbs,  with- 
out the  5  that  marks  the  corresponding  indicative  form.    In  the  case  of 
have,  this  means  that  the  subjunctive  is  have  where  the  indicative  is  has. 
Consequently  the  present  perfect  subjunctive  of  ail  verbs,  both  active 
and  passive,  makes  use  of  have  in  the  third  person 


49.  Subjunctive  in  Principal  Clauses.  The  use  of  the  sub- 
junctive in  modern  English  is  very  limited.  In  principal 
clauses  it  is  practically  confined  to  a  few  expressions  of  wish 
or  volition,  as  in  prayers. 

EXAMPLES:    (1)  God  bless  you!  (4)  Be  that  as  it  may. 

(2)  Every  one  rise.  (5)  Heaven  help  us! 

(3)  Suffice  it  to  say.  (6)  Long  live  the  king! 

The  verbs  in  these  examples  may  be  recognized  as  subjunctives 
from  the  fact  that  the  indicative,  third  person,  singular  forms 
would  be  blesses,  rises,  suffices,  is,  helps,  lives.  It  is  at  once 
evident  that  these  indicative  forms  would  not  at  all  express  the 
intended  meanings.  Some  of  the  verbs  seem  like  imperatives; 
but  in  each  case  there  is  a  subject'  in  the  third  person,  whereas 
the  imperative  is  used  only  in  the  second  person  —  in  direct  com- 
mands with  you  either  expressed  or  understood  as  the  subject. 


VERBS  53 

50.  Subjunctive  in  Subordinate  Clauses.  The  use  of  the 
subjunctive  in  subordinate  clauses  is  more  extensive  than  in 
principal  clauses; but  here  too  there  has  been  a  decided  tendency 
to  abandon  it  in  common  speech  and  writing.  It  is  much 
more  common  in  the  Bible,  in  Shakspere,  and  in  literary 
English  generally,  than  in  daily  use.  Yet  in  certain  cases  it  is 
very  important  to  know  the  distinction  between  the  indicative 
and  the  subjunctive  and  to  use  the  latter  effectively. 

A.  In  various  clauses  beginning  with  that,  lest,  and  similar 
conjunctions,  and  expressing  volition,  wish,  purpose,  obligation, 
^r  propriety,  the  subjunctive  is  rather  common. 

EXAMPLES  : 

(1)  I  insist  that  he  notify  me. 

(2)  Would  that  he  were  gone. 

(3)  I  move  that  the  question  be  laid  on  the  table. 

(4)  The  general  ordered  that  the  fort  be  blown  up. 

(5)  It  is  very  desirable  that  the  building  be  finished  soon. 

(6)  Give  him  food  lest  he  perish. 

(7)  Take  heed  that  he  escape  not. 

The  need  for  the  subjunctive  is  particularly  marked  in  sentences 
1,  3,  4,  and  5  above,  where  the  present  indicative  cannot  pos- 
sibly be  substituted — does  not  "make  sense/' 

•B.  The  subjunctive  is  also  used  in  various  clauses  beginning 
with  if,  though,  and  similar  conjunctions,  and  expressing  con- 
dition, concession,  etc. 

(a)  The  present  subjunctive  is  used  to  indicate  uncertainty. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  If  this  be  possible,  I  will  do  it. 

(2)  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  him. 

(3)  Unless  he  confess,  he  cannot  be  pardoned. 

This  is  more  a  literary  than  a  common  use,  yet  occasions  rise  in 
which  it  is  very  desirable  to  introduce  the  shade  of  meaning 
contributed  by  the  subjunctive.  When  the  if  clause  is  not  in- 
tended to  indicate  uncertainty,  however,  the  indicative  is  used. 

EXAMPLE  :     If  stealing  is  a  crime,  why  isn't  food  speculation  punish- 
able as  doubly  criminal? 


:>4  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

In  t  he  foregoing  sentence  stealing  is  regarded  as  unquestionably 
a  crime,  hence  the  indicative  form.  Yet  stealing  may  not 
always  be  wrong.  If%a  widow  steals  for  her  hungry  babies, 
there  may  be  some  question  as  to  the  criminality  of  the  act  and 
\M  may  properly  say: 

If  stealing  for  hungry  babies  be  a  crime,  then  mother  love  is  criminal. 

In  clauses  of  condition  or  concession  without  a  conjunction 
(with  if  or  though  implied  but  not  expressed),  the  need  of  the 
subjunctive  is  sometimes  more  obvious  than  when  there  is  a 
conjunction. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  Beit  ever  so  humble,  there's  no  place  like  home. 
( J)  Be  that  as  it  may,  I  can't  go  with  you. 

(b)  The  past  subjunctive  is  used  to  indicate  a  condition 
contrary  to  fact. 

EXAMPLES:    (1)  If  that  were  possible,  we  could  succeed. 

If  John  were  here,  I  would  scold  him  soundly. 

(3)  He  acts  as  if  he  were  era 

(4)  Were  1  asked,  I  should  be  glad  to  go. 

The  foregoing  sentences  imply  that  it  is  not  possible,  that  John 
is  not  here,  etc.  This  use  of  were  in  conditions  contrary  to 
fact  is  perhaps  the  most  important  use  of  the  subjunctive  in 
subordinate  clauses.  There  are  few  more  positive  marks  of  the 
careless  speaker  or  writer  than  the  use  of  was  with  the  first  or 
third  person  singular  in  if  clauses  such  as  the  following: 

(Bad)  (Good) 

If  I  was  ready,  I'd  go.  If  I  were  ready,  I'd  go. 

I  !••  acts  like1  he  was  angry.         He  acts  as  if  he  were  angry. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  there  is  a  perfectly 
correct  use  of  the  past  indicative  in  if  clauses,  just  as  there  is  of 
the  present  indicative. 

EXAMPLES*. 

(1)  If  he  was  ready,  he  was  to  go  at  once.     (A  matter  of  actual 

fact,  not  of  condition  contrary  to  fact.) 

(2)  If  I  was  at  fault,  why  didn't  you  correct  me? 

1  Note  here  the  additional  error  of  using  like  as  a  conjunction,  instead  of  at  if.  St-e 
Section  79. 


VERBS  55 

The  following  poem  by  Edward  Rowland  Sill  very  neatly 
illustrates  the  differences  of  meaning  between  indicative  and 
subjunctive: 

MOODS 

(From  Hermione  and  Other  Poems) 

Dawn  has  blossomed:  the  sun  is  nigh: 
Pearl  and  rose  in  the  wimpled  sky , 
Rose  and  pearl  on  a  brightening  blue: 
(She  is  true,  and  she  is  true!) 

The  noonday  lies  all  warm  and  still 
And  calm,  and  over  sleeping  hill 
And  wheat  field  falls  a  dreamy  hue: 
(If  she  be  true — if  she  b.e  true!) 

The  patient  evening  comes,  most  sad  and  fair: 
Veiled  are  the  stars :   the  dim  and  quiet  air 
Breathes  bitter  scents  of  hidden  myrrh  and  rue: 
(If  she  were  true — if  she  were  only  true!) 

In  the  morning  the  poet  is  optimistic;  he  uses  the  indicative 
to  assert  that  "she  is  true."  At  noon  he  doubts;  hence  the 
subjunctive,  "if  she  be  true."  Evening  finds  him  discouraged 
and  convinced  that  she  is  not  true — "if  she  were  only  true." 

61.  Verb  Phrases  Instead  of  the  Subjunctive.  One  reason 
for  the  limited  use  of  the  subjunctive  in  English  is  the  fact  that 
in  most  cases  a  verb  phrase1  with  some  auxiliary  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  subjunctive.  The  following  table  showing  how 
examples  from  the  preceding  sections  may  be  changed  will 
illustrate  this  point  fully: 

Subjunctives  Verb  Phrases 

1.  God  bless  you!  May  God  bless  you! 

2.  Every  one  rise.  Let  every  one  rise. 

3.  Suffice  it  to  say.  Let  it  suffice  to  say. 

4.  Heaven  help  us!  May  Heaven  help  us! 

5.  Long  live  the  king!  May  the  king  live  long! 

6.  I  insist  that  he  notify  me.  I   insist   that   he   shall    (or   must) 

notify  me. 


1  Any  verb  form  consisting  of  two  or  more  words  is  a  verb  phrase. 


56 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


7.  The  general  ordered  that  the 

fort  be  blown  up. 

8.  Give  him  food  lest  he  perish. 

9.  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I 

trust  him. 

10.  Be  it  ever  so  humble,  there's 

no  place  like  home. 

11.  If  that  were  possible,  we  could 

succeed. 

12.  Were  I  asked,  I  should  be  glad 

to  go. 


The  general  ordered  that  the  fort 

should  be  blown  up. 
Give  him  food  lest  he  should  perish. 
Though  he  should  slay  me,  yet  \\  ill 

I  trust  him. 
Though  it  may  be  ever  so  humble, 

there's  no  place  like  home. 
If  that  should  be  possible,  we  could 

succeed. 
If  I  should  be  asked,  I  should  be  glad 

to  go. 


The  advantages  of  the  subjunctive  should  be  evident  from 
a  mere  reading  of  the  above.  All  the  sentences  containing 
subjunctives  are  briefer,  and  most  of  them  seem  more 
natural  and  idiomatic  than  the  parallel  sentences. 


EXERCISE  20 

(a)  Which  form  is  better  in  the  following  sentences? 

1.  Whether  he  (spin,  spins)  his  comedies  in  rime 

Or  (scrawl,  scrawls) ,  as  Wood  and  Barclay  walk,  'gainst  time, 

His  style  in  youth  or  age  is  still  the  same.  — Byron 

2.  If  I  (wast  were)  you,  I  wouldn't  go. 

3.  But  who  may  know 

\\  hcther  smile  or  frown  (be,  is)  fleeter.  — Tennyson 

4.  What  good  should  follow  this,  if  this  (was,  were)  done? 

5.  Though  I  (am,  be)  a  woman,  have  I  no  legal  rights? 

6.  Govern  well  thy  appetite,  lest  sin  (surprise,  surprises)  thee. 

7.  If  thy  hand  (offends,  offend)  thee,  cut  it  off. 

8.  (/*,  Be)  it  scroll  or  (is,  be)  it  book, 

Into  it,  knight,  thou  must  not  look.  — Scott 

9.  I  wish  I  (was,  were)  prepared. 

10.  Now  if  this  (be,  is)  true,  we  are  in  danger. 

11.  Now  if  this  (was,  were)  true,  he  wouldn't  tell  you. 

(b)  Justify  the  following  uses: 

12.  The  leader  of  the  rush  (at  the  signal  of  the  platoon  leader,  if  the  latter 

be  not  the  leader  of  the  rush)  commands:     Follow  me. 

— Infantry  Drill  Regulations,  U.  S.  A. 

13.  Would  that  1  were  king. 


VERBS  57 

(c)  Either  word  may  be  used  in  sentence  14.     What  is  the 
difference  in  meaning? 
14.  Even  if  this  (is,  be)  true,  I  shall  trust  him  still. 

52.  Agreement  of  Subject  and  Predicate.  It  is  a  funda- 
mental rule  that  a  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  number. 
This  ought  to  be  a  very  simple  rule  to  observe,  for  (except  in 
the  case  of  tie)  the  singular  verb  is  different  from  the  plural 
only  in  the  tiiird  person  singular  of  the  present  and  the  present 
perfect  tenses.  Yet  the  fact  is  that  few  rules  are  so  often 
violated  To  avoid  such  errors  you  should  acquire  the  habit 
of  instantaneous  mental  analysis  of  an  uttered  sentence. 
Attention  to  the  following  sources  of  difficulty  is  important: 

(a)  Words  intervening  between  the  subject  and  the  verb  are 
sometimes  allowed  to  cause  confusion. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  A  range  of  mountains  extend  along  the  coast. 
(2)  Each  of  the  girls  have  permission. 

In  the  first  example  range  is  the  subject;  mountains  is  merely  the 
noun  of  a  prepositional  phrase  modifying  range ;  and  since  range 
is  singular,  the  verb  should  be  extends.  In  the  second  example 
each  (singular)  is  the  subject  and  the  verb  should  be  has. 

(b)  Sometimes  a  plural  predicate  noun,  nearer  the  verb  than 
a   singular   subject,   causes   confusion.     The   student   should 
remember  that  the  verb  agrees  with  the  subject,  not  with  the 
predicate  noun. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

One  of  the  most  interesting  sights   '     One  of  the  most  interesting  sights 

in  Texas  are  the  oil  wells.  in  Texas  is  the  oil  wells. 

t 

In  many  cases  the  best  way  to  avoid  trouble  is  so  to  con- 
struct the  sentence  that  there  is  no  disagreement  in  number 
between  the  subject  and  a  predicate  noun.  Thus  the  example 
just  given  would  be  rather  more  logical  if  it  read: 

The  oil  wells  are  among  the  most  interesting  sights  in  Texas. 

(c)  The  treatment  of  collective  nouns  often  puzzles  the 
student.  The  verb  with  a  collective  noun  may  usually  be  either 


58  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

singular  or  plural;  singular  if  the  persons  or  things  named  are 
thought  of  as  a  unit,  plural  if  individuals  of  the  group  are  meant. 

EXAMPLES  :    Our  family  is  not  very  large. 

Our  family  are  great  lovers  of  sport. 

It  is  important  to  treat  a  collective  noun  consistently  through-' 
out  a  given  sentence;  if  the  verb  is  made  singular,  for  example. 
words  that  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  verb  must  also  be  singular. 

(Inconsistent)  (Correct) 

The    committee   has   made   their        The  committee  hag  made  its  report, 
report.  The  committee  have    made    their 

report. 

EXERCISE  21 

Which  of  the  following  sentences  are  proper?  Explain  and 
correct  all  the  errors  you  find. 

1.  Not  one  of  the  men  was  lost. 

2.  Each  of  the  horses  were  cum  iorninp. 

3.  An  infinity  of  bountiful  white  snowflakes  carry  us  back  to  our  boyhood. 

4.  The  method  of  choosing  electors  is  not  considered  representative. 

5.  A  set  of  twenty  volumes  sell  for  $40. 

6.  Either  of  the  boys  write  well  enough. 

7.  Neither  of  them  take  lessons. 

8.  Seventy  thousand  miles  of  railroad  were  built  in  1900. 

9.  And  Lennox  with  a  gallant  band  waits  but  thy  coming.         — Scotl 

10.  H:iv<»  either  of  your  friends  arrived? 

11.  A  new  code  of  rules  and  regulations  are  being  made. 

12.  The  preacher  as  well  as  the  congregation  were  frightened. 

13.  Mrs.  Henderson  with  her  three  children  were  captured. 

63.  The  Compound  Subject.  When  there  is  a  compound 
subject  usage  varies. 

(a)  Two  or  more  words  joined  by  and  to  make  a  subject 
usually  take  a  plural  verb. 

EXAMPLE:    Havoc  and  spoil  and  ruin  are  my  gain.  — Milton 

If,  however,  the  words  are  taken  together  as  one  idea,  the 
singular  verb  is  used. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  My  old  schoolmate  and  chum  is  here. 
(2)  Bread  and  butter  is  good. 


VERBS  59 

, 

(b)  A  subject  consisting  of  two  or  more  singular  words 

joined  by  or  or  nor  requires  a  singular  verb. 
EXAMPLE  :     Neither  John  nor  Mary  has  any  time. 

But   when   the   words  differ  in  number,   the  verb  generally 
agrees  with  the  nearest  part  of  the  subject. 

EXAMPLES:     Neither  Fred  nor  the  French  boys  have  ever  been  in 

Chicago. 

Neither  the  French  boys  nor  Fred  has  ever  been  in 
Chicago. 

(c)  When  the  words  of  a  compound  subject  are  modified  by 
each,1  every,  or  no,  the  verb  must  be  singular. 

EXAMPLES: 

(1)  Each  village  and  hamlet  plays  its  part. 

(2)  Every  man,  woman,  and  child  has  his  opinion. 

(3)  No  man  and  no  woman  has  been  here.     . 

54.  Agreement  in  Person.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  sub- 
ject in  person.  There  is  a  peculiar  error  common  in  speech 
throughout  the  United  States.  It  is  the  "I  says"  error.  I  is 
of  the  first  person  (person  speaking).  Says  is  of  the  third 
person;  it  goes  properly  with  he.  In  I  says  the  subject  and 
predicate  do  not  agree  in  person. 

(Incorrect}  (Correct) 

And  I  goes  over  to  him  and  I  And  I  went  over  to  him  and  said, 

says,  says  I,  etc.  etc. 

What  is  wrong  with  the  following  sentence?  The  trouble 
is  not  only  a  matter  of  number;  person  is  involved,  also. 

You  was  there,  wasn't  you? 

Are  you  sure  your  explanation  is  right?     The  error  is  exceed- 
ingly common  among  careless  people. 

Don't  is  an  abbreviation  of  do  not,  and  is  in  good  use  as 
such.  It  must  not  be  employed  where  do  not  is  wrong. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

(1)  He  don't  mind  criticism  at  all.         (1)  He  doesn't  mind  criticism  at  all. 

(2)  The    tree    don't   have    much  (2)  The   tree   doesn't  have   much 

chance  in  the  city.  chance  in  the  city. 

1  Each,  every,  one,  none,  no,  and  any  are  usually  singular.     See  Section  59. 


60  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Trouble  in  this  matter  is  persistent  and  common.  Catch 
yourself  every  time  you  use  don't  in  the  third  person,  singular, 
present.  It  may  take  dozens  of  self-administered  punishments 
to  break  you  of  the  habit,  especially  if  you  are  so  unfortunate 
as  to  hear  the  error  at  home,  but  the  habit  must  be  broken. 
66.  The  Split  Infinitive.  When  one  or  more  words  are 
placed  between  the  to  of  an  infinitive  and  the  verb,  the  infinitive 
is  said  to  be  split  (or  cleft).  Usually  such  an  arrangement  is 
awkward.  N 

(Awkward)  (Better) 

It    pays    to   thoroughly   do   one's       It  pays  to  do  one's-  work   thor- 
work.  oughly. 

The  correction  just  given  may  be  applied  to  most  split  infini- 
tives; the  adverb  may  be  put  either  before  to  or  after  the  whole 
infinitive  phrase.  Though  split  infinitives  have  occasionally 
hern  usr»l  hy  ^<><><1  writers,  iii  0*061  in  which  it  seemed  less 
awkward  to  split  the  infinitive  than  to  place  the  adverb  outside 
the  infinitive  phrase,  and  though  for  this  reason  the  construct  i<  >n 
has  been  defended  by  some  good  grammarians,  there  can  be  no 
questipn  as  to  the  desirability  of  avoiding  the  split  infinitive 
when  a  simple  rearrangement  like  that  illustrated  above  is 
possible.  In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  it  is  perfectly  easy,  and 
preferable,  to  avoid  splitting  the  infinitive. 

EXERCISE  22 

Which  of  the  following  sentences  are  proper?     Correct  all 
the  errors  you  find. 

1.  The  tumult  and  the  shouting  dies.  — Kipling 

2.  It  don't  seem  right  that  a  few  men  should  have  so  great  a  power. 

3.  The  deer  flee  before  the  hounds. 

4.  They  have  placed  the  piano  in  a  room  where  no  one  but  their  family 

and  the  people  upstairs  hear  it. 

5.  Don't  an  industrious  and  honest  man  have  a  chance  now? 

6.  Well!    I  didn't  know  where  you  was. 

7.  Nor  time  nor  tide  affect  him  now. 

8.  Worth,  not  riches,  win  promotion. 

ft.  J/y  soul  and  my  four-footed  friend  is  all  I  have  today. 


VERBS  61 

10.  And  all  the  way,  the  joyous  people  sings 

And  with  their  garments  strews  the  paved  streets. 

11.  It  would  not  be  wise  for  him  to  suddenly  disappear. 

12.  Neither  James  nor  John  were  able  to  eat  their  dinner. 

13.  Marie,  accompanied  by  her  circle  of  friends,  is  exceedingly  happy. 

14.  Here  comes  Jones  and  his  friends. 

15.  Are  either  Mary  or  Julia  married? 

56.  Illiterate  Verb  Forms.  Aint  has  no  place  in  English. 
It  is  not  a  contraction  of  any  phrase. 

Such  forms  as  wa'n't  (for  was  not)  and  bein's  (bein's  it's  you) 
are  illiterate  and  not  to  be  tolerated. 

There  is  no  such  verb  form  as  had  ought;  ought  alone  is 
correct.  Nor  are  there  any  such  forms  as  would  of,  had  o/,  etc. 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  III 

1.  What  are  the  simple  tenses;  the  compound  (perfect)  tenses? 

2.  What  does  the  past  perfect  tense  denote?     The  future  perfect? 

3.  What  are  the  eight  different  simple  forms  of  the  verb  be? 

4.  What  three  present  tense  forms  have  we  for  a  verb?    Illustrate. 

5.  Are  verbs  inflected  for  person?    Number?    Voice?    Mood?    Tense? 

6.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  italicized  clause  in  Section  33. 

7.  Why  are  certain  verb  forms  called  principal  parts? 

8.  Explain  the  "I  have  saw"  error;  the  "I  seen"  error. 

9.  Is  be  transitive  or  intransitive?    Can  it  take  an  object? 

10.  What  is  the  test  for  sit  and  set?    Lay  and  lie? 

11.  What  errors  in  the  use  of  shall  and  will  are  most  common? 

12.  What  is  the  general  relation  between  shall  and  should?    Will   and 
would? 

13.  Can  you  write  a  possible  last  line  for  a  fourth  stanza  of  "Moods" 
(p.  55),  which  shall  be  indicative  and  negative? 

14.  Explain   the  principles  governing    the  agreement  of  subject  and 
predicate. 


CHAPTER    IV 

PRONOUNS 

57.  Inflection  of  Pronouns.  The  personal  pronouns  are 
inflected  more  than  nouns.  Their  inflection,  however,  consists 
more  in  the  use  of  different  words,  than  in  variations  of  form. 

EXAMPLES  of  inflection  by  the  use  of  different  words: 

I — me  we — us 

EXAMPLE  of  inflection  by  variation  of  the  same  word: 
he — him 

Every  student  knows  the  pronoun  forms  through  daily  use, 
but  many  need  their  attention  called  to  the  principles  violated 
by  their  errors. 

68.  Person.  The  primary  distinction  in  personal  pronouns 
is  in  the  matter  of  person. 

FIRST  PERSON  (Person  speaking) : 

I.  m\l,  mine,  me;  we,  our,  ours,  us 
SECOND  PERSON  (Person  spoken  to) : 

You,  your,  yours 
THIRD  PERSON  (Person  spoken  of): 

He,  his,  him;  she,  her,  hers;  it,  its;  they,  their,  theirs,  them 

The  only  common  error  involving  person  occurs  when  some 
careless  speaker  uses  second  person  you  with  third  (or  first) 
person  was.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  person 
(Section  54). 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

You  was  there,  wasn't  you?  You  were  there,  weren't  you? 

A  relative  pronoun  depends  for  its  person  on  the  word  to 
which  it  refers — its  antecedent. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  I  who  am,  etc.     (Who  is  first  person.) 

(2)  You  who  are,  etc.     (Who  is  second  person.) 
(3^  He  who  is,  etc.     (Who  is  third  person.) 


1  The  possessive  forms  are  included  in  Sections  58  and  59  because  they  have  been 
habitually  associated  with  the  other  forms  here  placed  with  them.  It  should  be  noted, 
however,  that  the  Joint  Committee  on  Grammatical  Nomenclature  has  made  a  special 
class  of  possessive  pronouns,  including  mine,  ours,  yours,  his,  hers,  theirs,  whose;  and  class- 
ifies  my.  our,  your,  his,  her,  its,  their,  and  whose  as  possefsive  adjectives  when  they  modify 
substantives. 

62 


PRONOUNS  63 

Sometimes,  at  first  glance,  who  used  in  the  first  person 
may  seem  wrong,  as  in  the  following  sentence : 

It  is  for  me,  who  am  the  loser,  to  decide. 

This  is  correct,  however,  because  who  refers  to  me,  first  person, 
and  am  is  the  first  person  form  of  the  verb. 

The  other  common  relative  pronouns — which  and  that — are 
similarly  of  the  person  of  their  antecedents,  but  they  do  not 
change  in  form. 

59.  Number.  The  singular  and  plural  forms  of  the  per- 
sonal pronouns  are  as  follows: 

Singular  Plural 

I,  my,  mine,1  me  we,  our,  ours,  us 

you,  your,  yours  you,  your,  yours 
he,  his,  him       1 

she,  her,  hers     >  they,  their,  theirs,  them 
it,  its                  J 

Relative  and  interrogative  pronouns  are  not  inflected  fof 
number,  but  are  in  construction  of  the  same  number  as  their 
antecedents. 

EXAMPLES:     He  who  is  afraid  may  stay  (singular). 
They  who  are  afraid  may  stay  (plural). 

Who  is  the  man  you  mean  (singular)? 
Who  arc  the  men  you  mean  (plural)? 

Most  of  the  indefinite  pronouns  are  singular,  but  some  are 
plural. 

Singular : 

each,  either,  neither,  another,  much,  one  (and  all  compounds  made 
from  it,  including  any  one,  every  one,  some  one,  etc.),  aught, 
naught,  anybody,  everybody,  nobody,  anything  (and  all  similar 
combinations  with  body  or  thing) 
Plural: 

both,  others,  few,  some,  many,  several 

Sometimes  singular;  sometimes  plural: 
all,  any,  more,  most,  such 


1  See  footnote  on  page  62. 


CA  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Note  particularly  the  list  of  singular  indefinites,  especially 
the  combinations  with  one  and  body.  When  a  personal  pronoun 
refers  to  an  indefinite  antecedent,  probably  a  majority  of 
people  forget  the  rule  that  a  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  ante- 
cedent in  number.  The  trouble  can  be  traced  in  many  cases 
to  a  feeling  for  gender.  You  begin,  "If  any  one  has  a  knifV, 
will—"  Here  you  don't  want  to  say  he,  since  that  seems  to 
exclude  the  other  sex.  She  would  be  as  bad.  So  you  com- 
promise by  finishing,  "will  they  let  me  take  it,  please?"  But 
any  one  is  singular ;  tin  //  is  plural.  The  pronoun  does  not  agree 
with  its  antecedent  in  number. 

The  difficulty  has  led  to  several  half-hearted  attempts  to 
coin  new  words.  "Hiser"  and  "himer"  for  "his  or  her"  and 
"him  or  her"  have  been  suggested,  to  fill  the  need  of  singular 
forms  that  can  serve  either  masculine  or  feminine  gender. 
Yet  such  attempts  are  sure  to  fail. 

We  must,  then,  fall  back  on  the  forms  of  either  he  or  she. 
Since  he  refers  to  man — meaning  the  race  of  n\an,  both  men  and 
women — it  is  the  logical  form  to  use.  Hence,  "If  any  one  here 
has  a  knife,  will  he  please  let  me  take  it?"  is  the  form  in  good 
use.  And  this  applies  to  pronouns  and  possessive  adjectives 
in  reference  to  all  the  indefinites  listed  on  page  63  as  singular, 
including  those  made  by  the  use  of  one  and  body. 

Even  every  one  and  everybody,  though  they  are  collective  and 
actually  imply  more  than  one  person,  are  singular.  You 
never  think  of  saying,  "Every  one  were  there";  "Everybody 
were  there."  You  instantly  feel  that  was  must  go  with  every 
one  and  with  everybody.  Yet  when  you  wish  later  to  refer  to  the 
same  word  that  you  have  instinctively  felt  to  be  singular,  you 
say,  nine  times  out  of  ten,  "Every  one  was  there  with  their 
golf  clubs" ;  "Everybody  was  there  as  soon  as  they  could  come." 

Singular  indefinites,  when  used  as  adjectives  instead  of  pro- 
nouns, and  singular  nouns  used  indefinitely,  must  be  treated 
exactly  like  singular  indefinite  pronouns. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  Each  boy  must  do  his  (not  their)  part. 

(2)  A  person  must  be  careful  what  he  says  (not  they  say).  • 


PRONOUNS  65 

EXERCISE  23 

Use  the  correct  word  in  each  of  the  following  sentences. 
Do  you  understand  each  case  fully? 

1.  Is  everybody  through  with  (his,  their)  work? 

2.  Each  of  the  pupils  told  (his,  their)  story  differently. 

3.  England  expects  every  man  to  do  (his,  their)  duty. 

4.  The  committee  brought  in  (their,  its)  report. 

5.  Every  one  in  the  crowd  had  to  look  out  for  (themselves,  himself). 

6.  Almost  every  one  thought  (he,  they)  knew  the  answer. 

7.  Neither  Helen  nor  Fred  has  a  right  to  do  as  (he,  they)  please  (s). 

8.  Each  of  the  girls  went  to  (their,  her)  room(s). 

9.  Neither  of  the  boys  did  (his,  their)  work  well. 

10.  If  a  person  were  to  go  there  Sunday  (they,  he)  could  see  the  crowd. 

60.  Gender.  In  the  personal  pronouns  all  three  genders 
exist;  but  the  forms  are  so  universally  known  that  they  require 
no  consideration  here.  The  gender  of  relative  and  interrogative 
pronouns,  however,  requires  brief  treatment. 

Who  refers  to  a  personal  antecedent,  either  masculine  or 
feminine. 

EXAMPLES  :    The  man  who    .... 

The  woman  who    .... 

This  is  true  also  of  who  as  an  interrogative  pronoun. 

EXAMPLES  :     Who  is  that  man? 

Who  is  that  woman? 

Which  refers  now  only  to  things  and  animals;  that  is,  it  is 
ordinarily  neuter. 

EXAMPLES  :     My  pen,  which  my  father  gave  me     .... 
The  deer  which  I  shot    .... 

Formerly  which  sometimes  had  reference  to  persons — "Our 
Father  which  art  .  .  .  ."  As  an  interrogative  it  may  now 
refer  to  persons — Which  of  the  boys  did  you  mean? 

That  may  refer  to  persons  or  animals  or  things. 

EXAMPLES:    The  man  that  I  meant    .... 

The  horse  that  ran  away     .... 
The  house  that  Jack  built     .... 


(W  \<M  ATIONAL  ENGLISH 

61.  Case  of  Pronouns.     By  far  the  greatest  difficulties  in 
the  use  of  pronouns  occur  in  relation  to  case.    This  is  because 
case  inflection  has  been  more  extensively  preserved  in  the 
personal  pronouns  and  in  who  than  in  any  other  English  words. 
Note  the  following  forms  with  great  care,  and  be  able  to  use 
instantly  any  desired  form: 

Nominative  Case: 

I  you        he          she         it  we  they       who 

Possessive  Case  (Possessive  Adjectives  or  Pronouns)1: 

my  your      his         her        its  our  their      whose 

iiiin--         yours  hers  ours  theirs 

Objective  Case  (Accusative-Dative  Case)1: 

me  you       him       her        it  us  them     whom 

62.  Nominative  Uses.   The  nominative  form  of  the  pronoun 
dhould  be  used: 

(a)  When  the  pronoun  is  the  subject  of  any  form  of  a  verb 
except  the  infinitive.     (See  Section  64e.) 

EXAMPLE  :    /  saw  you  toss  the  kites  on  high 

And  blow  the  birds  about  the  sky.  — Stevenson 

The  only  common  error  here  is  the  illiterate  use  of  an 
objective  form  in  a  compound  subject. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

Him  and  me  went  over  to  Lake        He    and    /    went    over    to    Lake 
Street.  Street. 

(b)  When  it  is  a  predicate  pronoun  after  any  form  of  a  verb 
except  the  infinitive.     (See  Section  64e.) 

EXAMPLE:    It  was  he  you  saw  across  the  street. 


i  In  this  table  the  terms  possessive  and  objective  are  used  because  they  have  been 
oractically  universal  in  English  grammar  and  because  they  represent  most  obviously  the 
functions  of  the  different  forms.  That  is,  the  forms  called  possessive  are  those  used  to 
show  possession,  and  when  pronouns  are  used  for  objects  they  have  the  forms  called  objec- 
tive. For  the  sake  of  uniformity  of  terms  in  all  languages,  however,  the  Joint  Committee 
on  Grammatical  Nomenclature  has  recommended  that  the  possessive  forms  be  called,  not 
the  possessive  case,  but  possessive  adjectives  or  possessive  pronouns,  according  to  their 
use;  and  that  the  forms  called  objective  above  be  called  the  accusative-dative  case — the 
accusative  being  the  case  of  the  direct  object  in  many  languages  and  the  dative  the  case 
of  the  indirect  object. 

EXAMPLE  of  possessive  adjective:     That  is  my  book. 

EXAMPLE  of  possessive  pronoun:     Mine  is  the  book  with  the  red  cover. 


PRONOUNS  67 

A  predicate  pronoun  should  be  as  readily  recognized  as  a 
predicate  noun  (see  Section  7c).  It  occurs  most  often  after 
some  form  of  be;  and  it  differs  from  an  object  in  that  it  always 
means  or  refers  to  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject.  It 
also  agrees  in  case  with  the  subject.  It  does  not  follow  a  verb 
that  can  have  an  object. 

Yet  perhaps  no  other  rule  in  grammar  is  violated  oftener 
than  this.  We  hear  "It's  her/'  "I'm  him,"  and  "It  is  me1" 
more  frequently  than  the  correct  forms.  Incorrect  expressions 
that  have  become  a  part  of  our  daily  speech  can  be  avoided  only 
by  watchful  effort.  Practice  saying  "It  is  she,"  "I  am  he," 
"It  is  I,"  until  it  becomes  instinctive  for  you  to  use  the  nomina- 
tive forms  for  predicate  pronouns. 

(c)  When  the  pronoun  is  in  apposition  with  a  nominative. 
A  noun  or  pronoun  that  is  added  to  explain  the  meaning  of  a 
preceding  noun  or  pronoun  is  called  an  appositive.  The  two 
words  are  said  to  be  in  apposition. 

EXAMPLES: 

(1)  Franklin,  the  philosopher,  was  born  in  Boston,  in  1706. 

(2)  We,  John  and  7,  stayed  that  night  in  Charleston. 

Appositives  sometimes  dull  the  sense  of  case.  No  one 
familiar  with  English  would  say,  "Us  want  a  party" ;  but  when 
a  noun  is  put  in  apposition  with  us,  people  sometimes  forget 
that  the  pronoun  is  the  subject  and  must  be  nominative. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

Us  girls  want  a  party.  We  girls  want  a  party. 

Likewise  no  one  would  say,  "He  went  with  we";  yet  we  often 
hear  the  following  statement: 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

He  went  with  we  boys.  He  went  with  us  boys. 


1  Many  excellent  authorities  on  grammar  recognize  the  use  of  me  as  a  "quasi-nomina- 
tive after  the  verb,"  because  it  has  been  very  common  in  colloquial  English.  The  most 
that  can  be  said  for  "It  is  me,"  however,  is  that  it  is  perhaps  defensible  in  colloquial  use 
as  an  idiomatic  exception  to  an  otherwise  regular  rule;  but  no  ordinary  student  can  afford 
to  use  it  because  of  the  risk  that  he  will  be  thought  ignorant.  And  the  fact  that  "It  is  me" 
is  not  universally  regarded  as  wrong  constitutes  no  defense  whatever  for  "It  is  her,"  "It 
is  him,"  "It  is  them,"  etc. 


(is  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

63.  Possessive  Uses.  The  possessive  forms  of  pronouns 
are  mainly  used  as  adjectives — i.  e.,  to  modify  nouns  or  pro* 
nouns. 

EXAMPLES:    my  book,  his  hat,  her  watch,  their  clothes. 

Possessive  forms  may  also  be  subjects,  objects,  etc. 

EXAMPLES:    (1)  Mine  was  the  largest  apple. 
(2)  She  lost  hers  yesterday. 

There  is  no  apostrophe  in  any  possessive  form  of  the  personal 
pronouns. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct). 

The  book  was  her>8.  The  book  was  hers. 

That  pencil  is  your**.  That  pencil  is  yours. 

The  gray  house  is  our's.  The  gray  house  is  ours. 

The  brown  one  is  their**.  The  brown  one  is  theirs. 

Some  of  it's  windows  arc  broken.  Some  of  its  windows  arc  broken. 

The  most  frequent  error  related  to  the  possessive  forms  of 
pronouns  occurs  in  connection  with  the  verb  forms  ending  in 
ing,  called  gerunds.  There  are  gerunds  identical  in  form  \vith 
all  the  participles  except  the  past  participle  (the  third  princi- 
pal part) .  These  forms  are  as  follows  for  strike: 

Active  Passive 

Present:        striking  being  struck 

Perfect:         having  struck1  having  been  struck1 

The  uses  of  the  participle  and  the  gerund  are  entirely  different, 
however,  for  the  former  is  a  verbal  adjective,  while  the  latter 
is  a  verbal  noun. 

Now  examine  the  sentence,  "I  heard  of  his  having  been 
struck."  Why  is  his  used  and  not  himt  Because  having  been 
struck,  a  gerund,  is  used  as  a  noun  with  the  preposition  of.  The 
sentence  does  not  mean  "I  heard  of  him";  it  means  "I  heard  of 
the  fact  that  he  was  struck."'  A  noun  cannot  be  modified  by 
an  objective  (accusative-dative)  pronoun,  like  him;  the 
possessive,  an  adjective,  is  required. 

1  Called  past  and  phrased  past  in  the  Report  of  the  Joint  Committee  on  Grammatical 
Nomenclature.  I 


PRONOUNS  69 

The  same  principle  applies  when  a  form  of  a  noun  is  the 
modifier  of  a  gerund.     The  possessive  (genitive)  is  necessary. 

EXAMPLE  :    What  do  you  think  of  Tom's  winning  that  race? 
EXERCISE  24 

(a)  Use  the  correct  form  in  each  of  the  following  sentences. 
Give  reasons. 

1.  What  do  you  think  of  (father's,  father)  working  so  hard? 

2.  We  had  expected  to  hear  of  (your,  you)  startling  the  world  with  your 

invention. 

3.  I  had  not  heard  of  (his,  him)  having  been  hurt. 

4.  Have  you  heard  of  (Harry,  Harry's)  losing  his  watch? 

5.  What  do  you  think  of  (me,  my)  running  for  mayor? 

(b)  Are  the  following  sentences  correct? 

1.  His  father  objects  to  us  helping  them. 

2.  They  insist  on  every  student  making  a  map. 

3.  I  knew  of  his  having  lost  his  mind. 

4.  His  falling  in  love  with  the  maid  is  real  comedy. 

5.  Have  you  heard  of  Mary  and  my  failing  to  meet  each  other? 

6.  The  coach  saw  him  running. 

7.  The  policeman  saw  him  running. 


64.  Objective   Uses.     The    objective     (accusative-dative) 
form  of  the  pronoun  is  used: 

(a)  When  the  pronoun  is  the  direct  object  of  a  verb. 

We  buried  him  darkly  at  dead  of  night, 
The  sod  with  our  bayonets  turning. 

— "The  Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore,"  Wolfe 

Care  is  often  needed  when  there  is  more  than  one  object. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

He  saw  Helen  and  /.  He  saw  Helen  and  me. 

In  any  such  sentence  omit  all  objects  but  the  pronoun,  and  the 
blunder  will  usually  be  evident. 


70  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

(b)  When  the  pronoun  is  used  with  a  preposition  to  form 
a  phrase. 

To  him  who  in  the  love  of  nature  holds 
Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 
A  various  languai 

— "Thanatopsis,"  Bryant 

Be  sure  to  discover  all  the  Words  that  go  with  the  preposition. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

(1)  He  did  it  for  Charles  and  /.  (1)  He  did  it  for  Charles  and  me. 

(2)  That  can  easily  be  done  by          (2)  That  can  easily  be  done  by 

you  and  he.  you  and  him. 

To  test  this  construction,  omit  one  of  the  words  following  the 
preposition.  "He  did  it  for  I"  is  instantly  felt  to  be  wrong. 
The  nominatives,  I  and  he,  must  be  replaced  by  the  objectives, 
me  and  him. 

Be  watchful  as  to  what  word  goes  with   a   preposition, 
even  if  it  is  some  distance  away. 

Whom  did  you  say  the  messenger  gave  the  letter  to?1 

(c)  When  the  pronoun  is  the  indirect  object  of  a  verb. 

"Give  us  a  song/1  the  soldiers  cried, 
The  outer  trenches  guarding. 

—"A  Song  of  the  Camp,"  Bayard  Taylor 

The  same  blunder  mentioned  in  (a)  and  (b)  occurs  in  this 
case  also. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

Give  Harry  and  /  the  baD.  Give  Harry  and  me  the  ball. 

You  would  never  think  of  saying,  "Give  I  the  ball/1  Why, 
then,  "Give  Harry  and  I"? 

(d)  When  the  pronoun  is  in  apposition  with  a  noun  or 
another  pronoun  in  the  objective  (accusative)  case. 

EXAMPLE:    The  broken  will  allowed  the  farm  to  pass  to  John — him 
who  had  been  so  unkind  to  his  father. 


1  Some  writers  object  to  a  preposition  at  the  end  of  a  sentence.     Sometimes  such   a 
construction  is  awkward,  but  in  many  cases  it  is  idiomatic  and  proper. 


PRONOUNS  71 

Him  agrees  with  John  in  case,  being  in  apposition  with  John. 
.  A  relative  pronoun  is  never  in  apposition  with  its  ante- 
cedent. It  should  never  be  argued  that  since  the  antecedent 
is  nominative  and  the  pronoun  "means  the  same"  as  the  ante- 
cedent, the  pronoun  should  be  nominative  also. 

EXAMPLE:     It  was  I  whom  you  saw.     I  is  nominative;  whom  is  the 
object  of  saw,  hence  objective. 

(e)  When  the  pronoun  is  the  subject  or  object  of  an  infini- 
tive, or  when  it  is  the  predicate  pronoun  after  an  infinitive. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  Mother  wanted  me  to  meet  him. 
(2)  They  thought  him  to  be  me. 

Examine  the  first  example  carefully.  Me  is  not  the  object 
of  the  verb  wanted.  Mother  did  not  want  me:  she  wanted  a 
meeting  to  take  place';  she  wanted  me  to  meet  him.  Me  to  meet 
him  is  the  object  of  wanted.  It  is  an  infinitive  clause  of  which  me 
is  the  subject  and  him  the  object.  Both  words  are  recognized 
at  once  as  objective. 

The  second  example  is  to  be  analyzed  in  the  same  way 
except  that  to  be  cannot  have  an  object.  Me  in  this  case  is  a 
predicate  pronoun  after  the  infinitive,  and  is  objective  to  agree 
with  the  subject  of  the  infinitive. 

Note  that  if  we  change  the  object  clause  so  that  it  contains 
a  finite  verb  (any  verb  of  the  indicative,  imperative,  or  sub- 
junctive mood)  instead  of  an  infinitive,  the  case  of  the  pro- 
nouns must  be  changed  thus : 

They  thought  he  was  /. 

Any  form  of  be,  then,  which  is  between  the  subject  and  a 
predicate  noun  or  pronoun,  is  preceded  and  followed  by  the 
same  case.  This  rule  applies,  however,  only  when  be  is  the 
main  verb.  In  the  sentence,  "He  was  striking  me,"  was  is  only 
a  helping  (auxiliary)  verb;  strike  is  the  main  verb,  appearing 
here  in  the  past  progressive  form  (see  Section  29).  Hence  me 
(objective)  is  not  required  to  agree  with  he  (nominative),  but 
is  in  the  regular  form  for  the  direct  obiect. 


72  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Infinitive  clauses  used  as  the  object  are  very  common  after 
the  verb  let,  and  are  sometimes  puzzling  because  after  this  verb 
the  sign  of  the  infinitive — to — is  omitted. 

EXAMPLE  :    Let  us  go. 

Replace  let  with  its  synonym,  allow,  and  it  may  be  more  evident 
that  go  is  an  infinitive. 
Allow  us  to  go. 

People  sometimes  forget  the  proper  case  for  pronouns  in  an 
infinitive  clause  and  make  errors  like  the  following: 

Let's  you  and  I  go  to  the  post  office. 

Us  (let1  s  =  let  us)  is  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  (to)  go;  hence 
it  is  objective.  The  other  pronouns  are  in  apposition  with  us 
and  therefore  should  also  be  objective.  .The  sentence  should 
read: 

Let's  you  and  me  go  to  the  post  office. 

Some  other  verbs  also  may  be  followed  by  infinitive  clauses 
without  to. 

EXAMPLES:    (1)  I  bade  him  go. 

(2)  I  saw  him  go. 

(3)  I  heard  him  go. 

(4)  Have  him  read  the  book.1 

EXERCISE  26 

Which  forms  should  be  used  in  the  following  sentences? 
Explain  your  reasons  each  time.  Repetition  will  do  you  no 
harm. 

1.  They  decided  to  stop  for  my  father  and  (/,  me). 

2.  The  recipients  should  be  (us,  we)  and  not  (them,  they)  for  (we,  us) 

not  (them,  they)  did  the  work. 

3.  The  prize  will  be  given  to  (whoever,  whomever)  proves  himself  most 

worthy. 

4.  With  (whoever,  whomever)  serves  his  fellowmen  I  take  my  stand. 

5.  We  agreed  to  allow  (she,  her)  and  Mary  to  stay  a  week. 

6.  The  gifts  are  from  (we,  us)  to  you. 


i  In  this  last  example  the  infinitive  has  an  object. 


PRONOUNS  73 

7.  I  took  (he,  him)  to  be  Harry. 

8.  (Me,  I)  and  Harry  won't  go  with  (those,  them)  boys. 

9.  Let's  you  and  (/,  me)  play  ball.     (Some  writers  object  to  us  in  this 

sentence;  analyze  it  without  the  us.) 

10.  Miller  sat  between  Charlie  and  (/,  me),  (he,  him)  (who,  whom)  (we,  us) 

boys  despised  so  heartily. 

11.  If  I  (was,  were)  (he,  him),  I  would  go. 

12.  This  can  easily  be  done  by  you  and  (she,  her). 

13.  Teacher:    "Will  you  recite?"    Pupil:     ("Mef"  "If") 

14.  The  first  time  I  saw  Holt  he  reminded  me  of  some  one;  I  couldn't 

remember  (who,  whom). 

15.  And  Clarence,  (who,  whom)  Nell  thought  handsome,  was  refused  a  place. 

16.  (Whom,  who)  the  man  serves  at  heart,  he  is  responsible  to. 

17.  They  thought  I  was  (he,  him). 

18.  The  thought  of  leaving  saddened  her,  and  I  must  admit,  although  I 

did  not  let  her  know  it,  (me,  I)  too. 

19.  Although  I  protested,  they  were  stronger  than  (7,  me)  and  their  advice 

prevailed.      (See  page  100.) 

20.  They  made  me  suffer  more  than  (he,  him). 

EXERCISE  26 

Which  form  is  correct  in.  each  of  the  following  sentences? 

1.  They  chose  my  brother  and  (/,  me)  to  go  as  delegates. 

2.  A  large  fortune  was  inherited  by  (her,  she)  and  her  sister. 

3.  It  was  (7,  me)  (who,  whom)  you  met  yesterday. 

4.  His  hand  is  against  all  (who,  whom)  he  cannot  call  friend. 

5.  She  is  better  loved  than  (he,  him). 

6.  Let  (we,  us)  girls  have  a  party. 

7.  That  Smith  should  say  it,  (he,  him)  of  all  men,  is  hardest  to  believe. 

8.  Lay  on,  Macduff,  and  damned  be  (he,  him)  who  first  cries,  "Hold, 

enough !"  — "Macbeth,"  Shakspere 

9.  (Whom,  who)  say  men  that  I  am?  — Bible 

10.  (Whom,  who)  do  you  think  the  child  likes  best? 

11.  I  pointed  out  the  man  (who,  whom)  I  thought  was  in  command. 

12.  He  pointed  out  the  one  (who,  whom)  he  took  to  be  (he,  him). 

13.  Let  (him,  he)  that  is  without  sin  cast  the  first  stone. 

65.  Miscellaneous  Points  about  Pronouns. 

• 

(a)  Distinguish  between  the  demonstrative  pronouns  this, 
tfiat,  these,  those,  and  the  same  words  used  as  adjectives. 

EXAMPLES:     (a)  This  is  my  hat  (pronoun). 

(b)  That  man  is  a  neighbor  of  mine  (adjective). 


74  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Remember  that  this  and  that  are  singular,  these  and  those  are 
plural ;  hence  it  is  a  gross  error  to  say  these  kind,  those  sort,  etc. 
here  and  that  there  are  also  bad  blunders. 

(b)  The  possessive  of  such  forms  as  somebody  else  is  prefer- 
ably somebody  else's,  not  somebody's  else.    The  reason  for  this  is 
the  fact  that,  especially  when  the  noun  modified  by  the  pos- 
sessive immediately  follows,  it  is  less  awkward  to  regard  the 
whole  expression  as  a  sort  of  compound  indefinite  pronoun, 
with  the  sign  of  possession  added  at  the  end. 

EXAMPLES:    (1)  He  was  acting  on  some  one  eUe's  behalf. 
(2)  It  is  nobody  else's  business. 

(c)  The  reflexive  or  intensive  pronouns — the  forms  ending 
in  self — cannot  properly  be  used  as  subjects,  or  as  objects  of  a 
verb  or  after  a  preposition  unless  a  corresponding  noun  or 
pronoun  is  the  subject. 

( /  ncorrect)  (Correct ) 

(1)  M yself  and  wife  wore  in\  i  (1)  My  wife  nnd  /  were  invited. 

(2)  They  invited  myself  and  \\  (2)  They  invited  my  wife  and  me. 

(3)  Did  you  hurt  yout  (3)  Did  you  hurt  yourself? 

The  intensive  pronouns  may,  however,  be  in  apposition 
with  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

EXAMPLES:    John*  himself  was  present. 
I  myself  saw  him  do  it. 

There  are  no  such  words  as  hisself  and  theirsebes.     Itself  is 
the  proper  form,  not  its  self. 

(d)  Each  other  (as  careful  analysis  of  the  parts  will  indicate) 
implies  a  reference  to  two  persons  or  things;  one  another,  to 
more  than  two. 

(Undesirable)  (Better) 

The  three  men  despised  each  other.         The  three  men  despised  one  another. 
The  two  boys  loved  one  another.  The  two  boys  loved  each  other. 

(e)  Learn  the  difference  between  aught,  meaning  "any- 
thing," and  naught,  meaning  "nothing."    With  these  words  is 


PRONOUNS  75 

sometimes  confused  the  verb  ought,  which  originally  meant 
"owed"  and  is  now  used  to  express  duty. 

EXAMPLE:     If  he  had  done  aught  wrong,  he  ought  to  let  naught  stand 
in  the  way  of  apology. 

(f )  The  former  and  the  latter  (which  are  sometimes  classed 
as  pronouns  when  used  independently  of  nouns)  should  be 
employed  only  in  comparing  two  persons  or  things.  If  more 
than  two  are  being  considered,  use  first  and  last,  or  first,  second, 
third,  etc. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

I  have  read  Ivanhoe,  The  Talisman,  I  have  read  Ivanhoe,  The  Talisman, 
and  The  Heart  of  Midlothian.  and  The  Heart  of  Midlothian. 

I  like  the  former  better.  I  like  the  first  best. 

EXERCISE  27 

(a)  Underscore  adjectives  and  doubly  underscore  pronouns 
in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  This  is  the  first  I  have  seen  this  year. 

2.  This  fact  does  not  appeal  to  those  who  hold  these  particular  views. 

(b)  Which  word  group  is  correct  in  each  of  the  following? 

1.  The  duel1  was  abandoned,  the  combatants  [watch  your  pronunciation] 

agreeing  to  apologize  to  (each  other,  one  another). 

2.  The  twins  resemble  (each  other,  one  another). 

3.  This  ticket  will  admit  (you  and  your  partner,  yourself  and  partner). 

(c)  Are  the  following  sentences  correct?     If  not,  correct 
them. 

1.  Nelson  and  Henderson  left  today  for  Little  Rock  and  Memphis.     The 

former  will  be  visited  first. 

2.  Leffler,  who  works  for  Wright  &  Browning,  and  his  cousin  Davis,  of 

Miller  &  Co.,  returned  to  the  latter's  store  before  the  detectives  left. 

3.  They  thought  Stroup  to  be  me. 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  IV 

1.  Are  pronouns  inflected   for   person?     Gender?     Number?     Case? 
Illustrate. 

2.  How  do  we  determine  the  person  and  number  of  a  relative  pronoun? 

1  Notice  the  difference  from  dual. 


76  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

3.  Name  ten  indefinite  pronouns. 

4.  Why  is  they  improper  when  used  to  refer  to  person  or  onef 

5.  Is  us  or  girls  "object"  of  the  preposition  to  in  the  following  sentence, 
"He  gave  it  to  us  girls"? 

6.  Do  personal  pronouns  ever  use  the  apostrophe  to  show  possession? 
Do  indefinite  pronouns? 

7.  Is  a  possessive  pronoun  really  a  pronoun  or  is  it  an  adjective? 

8.  What  is  the  greatest  danger  in  using  a  compound  object  consisting 
of  two  or  more  pronouns?    (Sec.  64.) 

9.  Explain  in  your  own  words  the  first  paragraph  on  page  71. 

10.  Is  the  subject  of  a  verb  always  nominative? 

11.  Is  the  object  of  a  verb  or  a  preposition  always  objective? 
12. 


CHAPTER    V 

ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS 

66.  Position  of  Adjectives.    An  adjective  modifies  a  noun 
or  a  pronoun.     There  are  two  common  positions  for  adjectives: 

(a)  Near  the  noun  or  pronoun  modified — usually  just  before 
it.     Thus  gray  in  the  following  couplet  modifies  the  noun  trout. 

Where  the  pools  are  bright  and  deep, 
Where  the  gray  trout  lies  asleep. 

— "A  Boy's  Song,"  James  Hogg 

(b)  In  the  predicate.     What  is  the  predicate  in  the  first 
line  above?    What  do  the  adjectives  bright  and  deep  describe? 
That  is,  what  idea  is  made  clearer  by  these  words?     Since  these 
words  are  in  the  predicate,  though  they  describe  the  noun  pools, 
they  are  called  predicate  adjectives.     (See  Section  7d). 

Be  (see  Section  28)  is  the  verb  most  commonly  followed  by  a 
predicate  adjective,  but  many  other  verbs  may  be  so  followed. 

EXAMPLES:    become,  seem,  appear,  look,  sound,  smell,  taste,  feel. 

In  general,  a  verb  that  can  have  a  predicate  noun  can  also 
have  a  predicate  adjective. 

EXAMPLES:          Predicate  noun  Predicate  adjective 

1.  He  was  a  fisherman.  1.  He  was  angry. 

2.  He  became  president.  2.  He  became  famous. 

67.  Comparison  of  Adjectives.    Adjectives  are  inflected  L* 
only  one  way — to  show  different  degrees  of  quality  or  quantity. 
For  instance,  one  thing  may  be  good,  another  may  be  better, 
while  a  third  may  be  best.    This  inflection  is  called  compari- 
son; the  three  degrees  of  comparison  are  positive,  or  the  simple 
form,  comparative,  and  superlative. 

EXAMPLES:    Positive                 Comparative  Superlative 

long                       longer  longest 

fine                        finer  finest 

lonely                    lonelier  loneliest 

77 


78  VOCATIONAL  ENGL 1 8 1 1 

This  method  of  adding  er  and  est  (or  r  and  st  if  the  positive 
form  ends  in  e),  with  change  of  a  final  y  to  i  if  necessary, 
applies  regularly  to  monosyllables  and  sometimes  to  longer 
adjectives;  but  many  words  of  two  syllables  and  practically 
all  words  of  more  than  two  syllables  seem  too  long  if  er  or  est 
is  added.  Consequently  a  second  common  method  of  com- 
parison consists  in  preceding  the  positive  form  by  mare  for 
the  comparative  degree,  and  by  most  for  the  superlative. 

EXAMPLES:    Positive  Comparative  Superlative 

beautiful  more  beautiful  most  beautiful 

faithful  more  faithful  most  faithful 

In  many  cases  the  choice  between  the  first  and  the  second 
methods  of  comparison  is  discretionary,  based  on  euphony. 
Thus  we  find  the  following  use  by  Coleridge:  "The  faithfulest 
of  all  the  camp." 

A  few  adjectives  use  a  different  root  in  comparison.  These 
are  all  very  common  words,  however,  and  a  complete  list  is  not 
necessary. 

EXAMPLES:        Po  Comparative  Superlative 
bad  (ill,  evil)                worse  worst 

good  (well)  better  best 

little  l'-s  least 

much  (many)  men-  most 

68.  Comparison  of  Adverbs.     Adverbs  are  compared  just 
like  adjectives,  except  that  the  number  adding  er  and  est  is 
much  more  limited  than  in  the  case  of  adjectives.    These  suf- 
fixes are  not  easily  added  to  the  most  common  adverbial  ending, 
ly;  so  that  more  and  most  are  used  in  the  great  majority  of 
adverbial  comparisons. 

EXAMPLES:        Positive  Comparative  Superlative 

hard  harder  hardest 

suddenly  more  suddenly  most  suddenly 

69.  Difficulties    Due    to    Inflection    for    Degree.     Several 
important  points  depend  upon  the  comparison  of  adjectives 
and  adverbs. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  79 

(a)  When  only  two  persons,  things,  or  ideas  are  being  com- 
pared, we  use  the  comparative  form — the  one  ending  in  er. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  John  is  the  taller  of  the  boys. 

(2)  Of  the  horses  the  darker  is  the  better. 

Because  of  this  rule  it  is  often  possible  to  indicate  two  without  a 
direct  statement.  Thus  in  the  examples  above  we  know  that 
only  two  boys  are  mentioned,  and  only  two  horses,  though  the 
word  two  does  not  occur.  It  is  a  bad  error  to  use  the  superlative 
in  relation  to  one  of  only  two  persons  or  things. 

(b)  Sometimes  a  lack  of  clear  thinking  causes  absurdity  in 
the  completion  of  a  comparison.     Examine  the  following  sen- 
tence: 

(Incorrect) 
The  elephant  is  larger  than  any  animal  in  the  world. 

Two  inferences  are  possible  from  this  statement:  First,  the 
elephant  is  an  "animal  in  the  world";  yet  the  elephant  is  larger 
than  "any  animal  in  the  world."  Therefore  the  elephant  is 
larger  than  the  elephant.  Or,  secondly,  the  elephant  is  not  an 
"animal  in  the  world."  Both  inferences,  plainly,  are  non- 
sense. It  would  be  correct,  however,  to  say,  "The  elephant 
is  larger  than  any  animal  in  North  America,"  because  the 
elephant  is  not  a  native  of  North  America.  Obviously  the 
error  in  the  original  sentence  is  to  be  corrected  by  inserting  the 
word  other. 

(Correct) 
The  elephant  is  larger  than  any  other  animal  in  the  world. 

Notice  that  it  is  only  in  the  comparative  degree  that  this 
trouble  arises.  We  do  not  say  that  the  elephant  "is  the  largest 
of  all  other  animals,"  for  the  elephant  is  not  a  member  of  the 
"other  animals"  group.  Neither  do  we  say,  "The  elephant  is 
the  largest  of  any  animal  in  the  world";  if  we  wish  to  use  the 
superlative,  we  simply  say,  "The  elephant  is  the  largest  animal 
in  the  world." 

(c)  Beware  of  double  comparison — by  the  use  of  both  er 


80  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

and  more,  or  both  est  and  most.    Shakspere  speaks  of  "the  most 
unkindest  cut/'  but  this  usage  is  not  now  sanctioned. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

He  is  less  richer  than  he  was  last          He  is  less  rich  than  he  was  last 
year.  year. 

^  not  so  rich  as  he  was  last  year. 

(d)  There  are  certain  adjectives  and  adverbs  that  in  their 
positive  forms  really  express  superlative  ideas,  so  that  on  careful 
analysis  it  seems  illogical  to  compare  them.  Thus  we  can 
hardly  speak  of  one  dead  person  as  deader  than  another,  or  a 
third  as  deadest  of  all.  Or  if  a  bucket  is  really  empty,  another 
bucket  cannot  be  emptier.  Other  adjectives  of  similar  char- 
acter are: 

unique  eternal  infinite  mortal 

everlasting  ni:it«hl.>>  universal  omnipotent 

The  natural  tendency  to  compare  is  strong,  however.  Such 
adjectives  as  round,  square,  straight — strictly  interpreted — 
would  scarcely  admit  of  comparison;  yet  one  would  not  hesitate 
to  say,  "My  apple  is  the  roundest  in  the  basket,"  or  "This  line 
is  straighter  than  that."  It  is  even  proverbial  to  speak  of 
some  thing  or  person  as  "deader  than  a  door-nail."  One  must 
be  watchful  to  avoid  absurdity,  however.  Often  a  comparison 
with  more  nearly,  most  nearly,  will  accurately  express  the  mean- 
ing. Thus  while  there  can  hardly  be  degrees  of  omnipotence, 
one  sovereign  may  be  more  nearly  omnipotent  than  another. 

EXERCISE  28 

(a}  Discuss  the  following  questions  (as  to  English,  not  fact) : 

1.  Is  God  wiser  than  any  man? 

2.  Is  Rebecca  (in  Ivanhoe)  sweeter  than  any  character  of  fiction? 

3.  Is  Clara  Barton  more  noble  (or  nobler)  than  any  character  of  fiction? 

4.  Is  Charles  the  most  favored  of  all  the  other  contestants? 

5.  Is  sentence  4  right  even  if  we  omit  otherf    Why? 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  81 

(b)  Make  all  necessary  corrections  in  the  following  sen- 
tences: 

1.  The  rounder  half  of  a  clam  shell  is  the  smoothest. 

2.  His  left  shoe  is  best. 

3.  He  bought  the  most  expensive  half. 

4.  England  is  the  strongest  sea  power  in  the  Triple  Entente. 

5.  John  is  the  tallest  of  the  twins. 

6.  Washington  was  more  sedate  than  any  of  our  presidents. 

7.  I  like  candy  better  than  anything. 

,    8.  God  is  most  high — most  omnipotent. 

9.  The  bin  was  becoming  more  empty  day  by  day. 

10.  Fred,  Laura,  and  Mary  Brown  visited  Somerfield  Tuesday,  the 

former  being  on  his  way  to  Cumberland. 

11.  June  22  is  the  longest  day  in  the  year. 

12.  Currants  are  better  for  jelly  than  any  small  fruit. 

70.  Adjective  or  Adverb.  Sometimes  it  seems  difficult  to 
decide  whether  an  adjective  or  an  adverb  should  be  used;  but 
if  the  student  can  determine  the  modifier  and  the  word  that  is 
being  modified,  he  will  have  little  trouble.  If  the  word  modi- 
fied is  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  use  an  adjective;  otherwise,  use 
an  adverb. 

EXAMPLES  :     (a)  The  rose  is  sweet. 

(b)  The  ostrich  runs  swiftly.  . 

In  (a)  rose  evidently  is  the  word  modified,  and  since  it  is  a 
noun  we  must  use  an  adjective  (here  a  predicate  adjective). 
In  (b)  runs  is  modified;  it  is  not  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  but  a 
verb — hence  the  adverb  swiftly. 

If  all  cases  were  as  simple  as  the  examples  just  given,  there 
would  be  little  trouble;  but  in  such  sentences  as  "The  music 
sounds  sweet  (sweetly)"  a  question  presents  itself.  Is  the  music 
sweet,  or  does  it  reach  the  hearer  in  a  sweet  manner — i.  e., 
sweetly?  Usually  the  sweetness  is  regarded  as  primarily  a 
quality  of  the  music,  and  the  adjective  is  used.  Yet  a  slight 
change  in  the  sentence  will  place  the  emphasis  on  the  manner 
in  which  the  sound  travels,  and  thereby  dictate  the  use  of  an 
adverb.  Most  people  have  enjoyed  distant  music  across  the 
water,  when  doubtless  the  sweetness  of  the  music  is  enhanced 


82  VOCATIONAL  ENGLI  s  1 1 

by  the  way  it  reaches  the  hearer.  That  is,  the  sweetness  is 
felt  to  be  in  part  due  to  the  sounding.  Then  sounds  is  the 
word  modified  and  we  have:  ' 'The  music  sounds  sweetly  across 
the  water/' 

In  general,  verbs  of  the  five  senses  (look,  feel,  sound,  taste, 
and  smell)  and  a  few  others,  including  seem,  appear,  and  stand, 
are  followed  by  adjectives. 

EXAMPLES:    (1)  The  rose  smells  tweet. 

(2)  The  candy  tastes  good. 

(3)  They  seem  happy. 

(4)  Patriots  stand  firm. 

In  these  cases,  clearly,  some  form  of  be  could  be  substituted  as 
the  verb  without  materially  changing  the  meaning,  showing 
unmistakably  that  predicate  adjectives  are  called  for.  But 
when  the  same  verbs  place  the  emphasis  on  action,  or  the 
manner  of  acting,  they  are  followed  by  adverbs. 

EXAMPLES:    (1)  The  dog  smelted  suspiciously  at  the  stranger's  boots. 

(2)  The  blind  man  feels  skillfully  with  his  hands. 

(3)  The  sailor  stands  firmly  on  the  deck. 

In  these  cases  no  form  of  be  could  be  substituted  as  the  verb 
without  decided  change  of  meaning.  A  handy  rule,  sufficiently 
exact  for  most  occasions,  is  this:  The  verbs  expressing  the 
five  senses  are  followed  by  adjectives  unless  they  mean  action. 

EXERCISE  20 

Examine  the  following  sentences  carefully  and  decide 
(a)  whether  both  forms  may  be  correct;  (b)  if  so,  what  the 
differences  in  meaning  are;  (c)  if  only  one  form  is  correct,  which 
one.  Give  reasons  in  every  case. 

1.  She  felt  (sick,  sickly). 

2.  He  looked  (wretched,  wretchedly). 

3.  He  feels  (gentle,  gently). 

4.  Will  you.  help  me?     (Sure,  surely). 

5.  I  am  (near,  nearly)  suffocated. 

6.  Do  your  work  (thorough,  thoroughly). 

7.  He  looked  up  (sick,  sickly). 

8.  He  was  hurt  (bad,  badly). 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  83 

71.  The  "Flat  Adverbs."  While  the  great  majority  of 
adverbs  that  correspond  to  adjectives  are  formed  by  the 
addition  of  ly  to  the  adjective  form,  many  common  words 
without  the  final  ly  are  used  as  either  adjectives  or  adverbs. 
In  the  latter  use  they  are  sometimes  called  "flat  adverbs." 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  Go  slow.  (3)  Digdeep. 

(2)  Talk  louder.  (4)  Look  quick. 

In  spite  of  objections  by  purists  who  would  like  to  see  street 
signs  read  "Proceed  slowly77  rather  than  "Go  slow/7  the  "flat 
adverbs,"  because  of  their  brevity  and  directness,  are  in  many 
cases  idiomatic  in  conversation  and  in  business  usage.  The 
student  should  not  assume  that  he  may  use  either  the  "flat 
adverb"  or  the  form  in  ly  at  will,  however.  It  is  better  to  err 
on  the  side  of  conventional  correctness  than  to  give  an  impres- 
sion of  carelessness  in  grammar  by  using  a  "flat  adverb77  that 
is  not  well  established  in  idiomatic  use.  The  following  uses, 
however',  are  correct: 

1.  He  studied  hard  till  eleven  o'clock. 

2.  He  ran  as  fast  as  he  could. 

3.  That  is  easier  said  than  done.     (The  more  formal  adverb  would 

be  more  easily.) 

4.  He  sold  his  house  cheap. 

5.  Strike  as  low  as  you  can. 

6.  "Love  me  little,  love  me  long." 

EXERCISE  SO 

Which  of  the  following  are  correct?  In  which  cases  would 
you  prefer  other  forms? 

1.  Trains  move  swifter  than  boats. 

2.  Talk  louder,  please.     (You  is  understood  to  be  the  subject  of  the  verb 

talk.) 

3.  I  can  do  it  easier  than  I  could  last  year. 

4.  She  sewed  much  faster  than  I. 

5.  The  music  sounds  loud. 

6.  The  trumpet  sounds  loud. 

7.  The  vault  was  emptier  after  each  trip. 

8.  The  ships  came  in  safe  and  sound. 

9.  He  got  the  answer  quick. 
10.  He  was  near  dead. 


84  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

72.  Some  Special  Adjectives  and  Adverbs.     In  the  follow- 
ing cases  errors  are  very  frequent: 

(a)  Bad  and  badly.     Bad  is  in  very  common  use  in  the  sense 
of  ill  or  unwett,  or  perhaps  uncomfortable,  or  in  almost  any 
meaning  implying  an  unpleasant  condition,  as  illustrated  in  the 
following  sentences: 

1.  She  felt  bad  yesterday. 

2.  My  back  feels  bad  today. 

3.  I  felt  bad  not  to  be  able  to  go  to  the  game. 

These  are  colloquial  uses  and  have  often  been  criticized,  but 
they  are  idiomatic  and  practically  universal.  The  notion  that 
such  uses  of  the  adjective  bad  are  to  be  corrected  by  substitut  ing 
the  adverb  badly  is  absurd,  because  in  every  such  case  the 
construction  requires  a  predicate  adjective,  not  an  adverb  at 
all.  He  feels  badly  cannot  logically  mean  anything  but  that 
"He  performs  the  act  of  feeling  in  a  bad  (or  inefficient)  manner." 

(b)  Double  negatives.    One  negative  for  one  idea  is  enough 
in  English.    Everybody  knows  what  a  gross  error  it  is  to  say, 
"He  never  did  nothing  to  nobody,"  yet  there  is  much  carelessness 
in  this  matter.    Another  form  of  the  error  occurs  in  connection 
with  such  words  as  hardly,  scarcely,  and  neither. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

(1)  I  hadn't  hardly  got  there.  (1)  I  had  hardly  got  there. 

(2)  I  couldn't  do  it  neither.  (2)  I  couldn't  do  it  either. 

The  common  expression,  "Two  negatives  make  an  affirmative," 
is  literally  true  in  such  combinations  as  not  impossible,  which 
means  exactly  the  same  thing  as  possible. 

(c)  Good  and  well.    Good  is  an  adjective;  well  is  an  adverb 
except  when  it  means  in  health.     It  is  then  an  adjective. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  He  is  a  good  man. 

(2)  But  he  has  not  been  well  for  years  (adjective). 

(3)  He  manages  to  work  well,  however  (adverb). 

There  is  a  colloquial  use  of  good,  mainly  with  the  verb  feel, 
that  is  the  exact  counterpart  of  the  colloquial  use  of  bad;  as 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  85 

in,  "I  felt  good  yesterday."  This  meaning  is  hardly  so  neces- 
sary or  so  well  established  as  the  corresponding  use  of  bad, 
since  it  is  easier  to  find  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  good. 

(d)  Kind  o'  and  sort  6*.     The  use  of  these  expressions  as 
adverbs  is  a  very  crude  colloquialism. 

EXAMPLE  :     I  feel  kind  a'  (or  o')  tired  tonight,  and  it's  sort  o'  chilly  here. 

The  italicized  words  in  such  a  sentence  are  exact  equivalents 
of  rather  or  somewhat — adverbs  modifying  tired  and  chilly. 
There  is  a  correct  use  for  kind  of  and  sort  of,  but  kind  and  sort 
are  then  nouns. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  Hydrox  is  a  kind  of  water. 
(2)  He  is  the  right  sort  of  man. 

The  noun  following  kind  of  or  sort  of  should  not  be  modified 
by  a  or  an;  that  is,  we  say,  "I  do  not  like  that  kind  of  girl,"  not 
"that  kind  of  a  girl."  There  could  not  be  several  kinds  of  one 
girl;  the  noun  girl  is  used  for  the  entire  class. 

(e)  Less  and  fewer.     Less  is  used  for  quantity,  without 
regard  to  the  number  involved.     Fewer  is  used  when  one  thinks 
of  the  individuals  making  a  group. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  The  distance  is  less  than  forty  miles. 

(2)  Not  fewer  than  forty  men  called  on  him. 

(f)  Most  and  almost.    Most  is  concerned  with  number  or 
quantity;  almost  means  nearly.     Error  often  occurs  because  of 
the  colloquial  contraction  of  almost  to  most.     Try  substituting 
nearly  for  the  word  in  question.    If  the  sense  permits  the  change, 
use  almost;  otherwise  use  most. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  I  was  almost  (nearly)  tired  out. 

(2)  Most  Americans  care  little  for  royalty. 

(g)  Rarely  and  seldom  with  ever.     Rarely  ever,  seldom  ever? 
and  even  seldom  or  ever  are  sometimes  used  when  rarely,  seldom- 


80  VOCATIONAL  1 

and  seldom  if  ever  are  meant.     To  avoid  such  errors  it  is  only 
ssary  to  think  a  moment,  about  what  the  words  really  mean. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

He  rarely  ever  comes  to  see  us.  He  rarely  comes  to  see  us. 

I    *  If  lorn  ever  get  to  New  York.  I  seldom  get  to  New  York. 

She  seldom  or  ever  saw  such  a  fine  She  seldom,  if  ever,  saw  such  a  fine 
garden.  garden. 

(h)  Real  and  very.  Very  is  ordinarily  an  adverb.  Some- 
times very  seems  too  strong  a  word,  and  real  is  used  as  an  adverb 
ii  its  place,  though  real  is  properly  only  an  adjective. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

I  am  real  glad  to  hear  it.  I  am  very  glad  to  hear  it. 

Really  is  a  perfectly  good  adverb;  but  "I  am  really  glad  to 
hear  it"  is  not  equivalent  to  "I  am  very  glad  to  hear  it." 

(i)  Some  and  somewhat.  Some  is  an  adjective  or  a  pronoun 
in  its  ordinary  uses;  as  an  adverb  in  place  of  somewhat  it  is  not 
accepted  by  careful  speakers  and  writers. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

He  was  some  better  yesterday.  He  was  somewhat  better  yesterday. 

( j )  There  and  their.  There  is  an  adverb ;  their  is  a  possessive 
adjective,  or  the  possessive  form  of  the  plural  third-person  pro- 
noun. Confusion  between  these  words  is  primarily  a  matter 
of  spelling — or  carelessness  in  spelling,  for  most  pupils  really 
know  the  difference.  There  may  imply  place. 

EXAMPLE:    He  went  there  yesterday. 

Or  it  may  be  used  as  a  kind  of  spring-board  for  a  sentence; 
this  is  called  the  expletive  use. 

EXAMPLE  :     There  is  said  to  be  much  coal  in  Alaska. 

Their  is  always  possessive  and  always  used  as  an  adjective. 

(k)  Through  as  an  adjective.  The  use  of  through  as  a 
predicate  adjective  in  such  sentences  as  "I  was  through  before 
noon,"  where  the  meaning  is  "I  had  finished  before  noon,"  is 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  87 

colloquial  only.     But  through  is  correctly  used  as  an  adjective 
in  such  expressions  as  "a  through  train." 

(1)  Too,  to,  and  two.  These  three  little  words  are  the 
despair  of  the  teacher.  It  matters  not  how  many  times  they  are 
explained;  the  pupil  will'  write,  "He  was  to  tired."  The  best 
corrective  is  to  look  carefully  at  what  you  have  written.  Too 
is  an  adverb,  meaning  (a)  more  than  enough  or  (b)  also.  To 
is  a  preposition.  Two  is  a  number — either  noun  or  adjective. 

EXAMPLES:     (a)  My  mind  to  me  a  kingdom  is, 

Such  present  joys  therein  I  find. — Sir  Edward  Dyer 

(b)  But  such  a  tide  as  moving  seems  asleep, 

Too  full  for  sound  or  foam.  — Tennyson 

(c)  I  too  would  bear  my  part. 

(m)  Where  adverbs.  Anywhere,  everywhere,  nowhere,  some- 
where are  a  group  of  accepted  adverbs.  Place  cannot  be  used 
instead  of  where  in  these  words;  but  place  as  a  noun  may  be 
modified  by  the  adjectives  any,  every,  no,  or  some.  In  the  latter 
case,  of  course,  the  noun  and  the  adjective  will  be  distinct  words. 

EXAMPLES:     I  could  not  find  him  anywhere.     (Anyplace  would  be 

wrong.) 

There  wasn't  any  place  for  me. 
Somewhere  the  sun  is  shining. 
I  should  like  to  find  some  place  where  I  can  rest. 

EXERCISE  31 

Choose  the  proper  word  for  each  of  the  following  sentences, 
or  in  cases  of  error  make  the  necessary  corrections: 

1.  I  can't  write  as  (well,  good)  as  you. 

2.  I  had  (nowhere,  noplace)  to  go. 

3.  Does  the  dinner  taste  (good,  well)? 

4.  It  was  a  kind  of  a  shame  that  you  couldn't  come. 

5.  I  was  kind  of  ashamed  of  myselt. 

6.  I  felt  so  badly  about  it  that  I  cried. 

7.  There  were  not  (less,  fewer)  than  ten  thousand  people  present. 

8.  The  stops  are  (less,  fewer)  between  Chicago  and  Omaha  than  between 

New  York  and  Chicago. 

9.  She  sang  so  (bad,  badly)  that  I  could  hardly  bear  to  listen. 
10.  He  hadn't  been  (good,  well)  in  health  for  months. 


88  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  32 

(a)  Complete  the  following  sentences  with  either  most  or 
almost: 

1.  of  them  came  yesterday. 

2.  I  i'as sure  they  would  come. 

3.  every  one  believes  he1  could  succeed  as  President. 

4.  men  have  little  chance  to  become  President. 

(b)  Fill  the  blanks  with  real  or  very: 

1.  Is  that  a diamond? 

2.  I  like  your  new  suit welL 

3.  Those  wax  figures  look . 

4.  We  were glad  to  find  the  garment  trimmed  in point 

lace. 

(c)  Fill  the  blanks  with  there  or  their: 

1.  _: are hats  in  the  hammock. 

2.  And horses  stood, reins  under feet. 

(d)  Fill  the  blanks  with  to,  too9  or  two.    After  writing  the 
exercise  once,  destroy  the  paper  and  write  it  again.    Do  not 
forget  that  the  misuse  of  to  or  too  is  sure  to  call  down  the 
wrath  of  most  employers. 

1. him  are many. 

2.  They  gave him . 


3.  Then is many one  address. 

4.  He came,  from four  p.  m. 

5.  I  see a  machine  is dangerous the 

lives  of  the  men  entrusted the commanders. 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  V 

1.  Adjectives  occur  in  what  two  positions  in  a  sentence? 

2.  Why  are  adjectives  compared? 

3.  What  two  general  methods  of  comparison  are  in  use? 

4.  When  should  you  use  tallerf     TaUestf 


1  Resist  any  tendency  to  use  they. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  89 

5.  Are  pickles  sourer  than  anything? 

6.  How  does  the  adverb  usually  differ  in  form  from  the  adjective? 

7.  We  should  not  say  "kind  of  an  apple."    Why?    (See  p.  85.) 

8.  What  is  the  distinction  between  less  and  fewer?    Real  and  very? 
Good  and  well? 

9.  Is  nearly  a  synonym  for  most  or  for  almost? 

10.  Is  anyplace   an  accepted  word?    What   would  you  substitute  for 
it? 


CHAPTER    VI 

PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS 

73.  Definition   of   Preposition.     The   word   preposition   is 
made  of  pre  and  positus.    These  parts  are  found,  respectively, 
in  prefix  and  position.    Evidently  they  mean  placed  before.    A 
preposition,  accordingly,  is  a  word  usually  "placed  before"  a 
noun  or  pronoun  (or  some  word  used  as  such)  to  show  a  relation 
of  that  noun  or  pronoun  with  some  other  word.    A  preposition 
is  said  to  "govern,"  grammatically,  the  noun  or  pronoun  taken 
with  it,  and  with  that  noun  or  pronoun  it  forms  a  phrase. 

To,  with,  /ram,  of,  upon,  are  common  prepositions.  Count- 
ing such  combinations  as  according  to,  in  regard  to,  on  account  of, 
etc.,  which  may  be  called  compound  prepositions,  there  are 
about  a  hundred  prepositions  in  common  use  in  English.  They 
are  of  great  importance  for  several  reasons.  One  of  these  is 
the  extent  to  which  English  has  lost  its  inflections;  relations 
shown  in  many  other  languages  by  inflectional  means  must  be 
indicated  in  English  by  a  careful  choice  of  prepositions.  Again, 
a  large  part  of  the  trouble  with  English  idiom  is  due  to  a 
failure  to  understand  the  exact  uses  of  prepositions. 

Prepositions  are  not  inflected.  Nouns  and  pronouns 
governed  by  prepositions,  however,  are  objective  (accusative). 

74.  Prepositions  Sometimes  Confused.    The  following  pairs 
of  prepositions  often  cause  trouble  because  people  fail  to 
understand  how  they  differ  in  meaning : 

(a)  At  and  to.    At  implies  a  fixed  position;  to  implies 
motion.    Thus,  "He's  not  to  home,"  "When  I  was  to  school," 
are  very  bad  errors.     At  should  replace  to. 

(b)  Between  and  among.     Between  is  used  in  relation  to  two 
persons  or  things;  among  in  relation  to  more  than  two. 

EXAMPLES:    Racine  is  between  Chicago  and  Milwaukee.    Among  the 
cities  of  Wisconsin  it  is  noted  for  manufacturing. 
90 


PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS  91 

A  careful  use  of  these  two  prepositions  will  sometimes 
enable  a  writer  or  speaker  to  reduce  the  number  of  his  words 
in  expressing  an  idea.  For  example,  what  word  can  be  omitted 
from  the  following  sentence  without  any  loss? 

She  divided  the  apples  between  the  two  boys. 

In  the  following  sentence  what  do  you  know  as  to  the  number 
of  the  heirs? 

The  property  was  divided  among  the  heirs. 

Avoid  the  following  types  of  error: 

(1)  Drink  a  glass  of  water  between  each  meal. 

(2)  There  is  an  aisle  between  each  row. 

Say  "after  each  meal'7  or  "between  meals/'  and  "between  the 
rows/' 

(c)  By  and  to.     "I  went  by  the  post  office"  is  sometimes 
heard  when  "to  the  post  office"  is  meant.     By  is  incorrect  unless 
past  is  meant. 

(d)  In  and  into.     In  implies  a  fixed  position;  into  implies 
entrance.     Thus  the  difference  between  these  words  resembles 
that  between  at  and  to.    For  example,  "He  walked  into  the 
room"    means    that  he  entered  it  from  outside;  while  "He 
walked  in  the  room"  implies  that  he  was  already  in  the  room 
and  simply  walked  about  in  it.     One  gets  into  (not  in)  trouble. 

(e)  Onto  and  upon.    Onto  has  been  formed  on  the  model  of 
into  and  is  in  very  common  colloquial  use,  but  most  careful 
writers  prefer  to  avoid  it.     Usually  on  or  upon  may  take  its 
place.     On  to  (two  words)  may  be  correct. 

EXAMPLE  :    We  moved  on  to  Hastings. 

In  this  case,  however,  on  is  an  adverb  modifying  moved,  and  the 
preposition  is  to. 

EXERCISE  33 

(a)  Fill  the  blanks  below  with  in  or  into: 

1.  He  put  his  hat the  box. 

2.  He  found  his  hat the  box. 

3".  " each  life  some  rain  must  fall." 


92  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

h  over  the  quiet1  city  a  single  airplane  drew sight. 

6.  The  balloon  came  down a  field  of  growing  corn. 

6.  The  great  mine  elevator  sank  silently the  earth  and  was  gone. 

7.  Let  me  live my  house  by  the  side  of  the  road 

And  be  a  friend  to  man.  — Sam  Walter  Fos$ 

(b)  Correct  errors  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Between  you  and  I  and  the  gatepost,  I  don't  believe  that  tale. 

2.  Were  you  to  the  ball  game  yesterday? 

3.  Between  each  row  of  corn  they  planted  pumpkins. 

4.  I  went  in  the  house  and  got  a  sandwich. 

5.  He  climbed  onto  the  roof  and  got  the  ball. 

6.  Mother  divided  the  orange  between  her  three  children. 

75.  Idiomatic  Use  of  Prepositions.  Many  errors  are  due  to 
the  use  of  wrong  prepositions.  Often  there  is  no  reason  other 
than  custom  for  a  particular  combination  with  a  preposition, 
so  that  one  simply  has  to  "get  the  feel"  of  what  is  right. 
Foreign-born  students  usually  need  to  learn  each  idiom  sep- 
arately. The  following  list  of  correct  uses  of  prepositions  with 
various  common  words  is  based  on  actual  errors  made  by 
students  in  composition: 

accompany   — He  was  accompanied  by  (not  vrith)  his  two  children. 

accord  —His  views  accord  with  (not  to)  mine  (or,  are  in  accord- 

ance with  mine). 

acquit  — He  was  acquitted  of  (not  from)  the  crime. 

advantage  —John  had  an  advantage  over  James  (or,  took  advantage 
o/him). 

agree  — I  agree  with  him.    I  agree  to  his  proposal. 

arrive  —She  arrived  at  (or  in;  not  to)  Chicago  yesterday. 

back  — Put  it  behind  (not  in  back  of)  the  desk.  In  front  of 

is  accepted  as  a  sort  of  compound  preposition,  but 
in  back  of  is  a  bad  error.  Back  of  is  in  colloquial 
use,  however. 

bestow  — Parliament  bestowed  the  crown  upon  (or  on;  not  to) 

the  dead  king's  nephew. 

blame  —He  blames  me  for  it;  or,  He  lays  the  blame  on  me. 

The  common  expression  blames  it  on  is  inexcusable. 

characteristic— Tony  had  the  fiery  temper  characteristic  of  (not  to) 
Sicilians. 


*  l*upila  olten  confuse  guiet  and  quite.  .  Do  you? 


PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS 


93 


charge 


He  wag 


— He  was  charged  with  (not  of)  this  message. 

charged  for  ten  pounds  of  sugar. 
— I  commented  favorably  on  (not  of)  the  book. 
— I  wish  to  comply  with  (not  to)  your  desires. 
— The  emperor  conferred  a  title  on  his  aide-de-camp* 

He  conferred  with  his  ministers  before  acting. 
— Because  I  confide  in  you  (have  confidence  in  you), 

I  am  going  to  confide  my  secret  to  you. 
— The  engine  is  connected  with  (not  to)  the  car. 
— Black  contrasts  with  (is  in  contrast  with)  white. 
— The  practice  is  customary   with    (or  among;  not  to) 

merchants. 

— I  deal  with  John  Smith,  who  deals  in  groceries. 
— Children  are  dependent  on  their  parents,  but  later 

become  independent  of  them. 

— He  died  of  (better  than  with  or  from)  consumption. 
differ,  different — I  differ  with  you  in  opinion  because  I  differ  from  you 
in  character.     I  am  very  different /row  you.     Differ- 
ent than  is  a  very  bad  blunder,  for  than  is  not  a 
preposition. 

— "My  mistake  was  due  to  a  misunderstanding"  is  a 
correct  sentence,  in  which  due  is  a  predicate  adjective. 
"Due  to  a  misunderstanding  I  made  a  mistake"  is 
wrong,  because  here  due  to  is  improperly  used  as  a 
compound  preposition  meaning  because  of  or  owing  to. 
— She  is  employed  by  Richard  Roe  in  his  office  at  a 
salary  of  $15  a  week.  She  is  in  the  employ  of  Mr. 
Roe. 

— I  am  familiar  with  (not  of)  these  facts. 
— He  gave  his  time  to  (not  in)  writing. 
— I  am  glad  of  it.     Or,  I  am  glad  at  the  news. 
hindrance      — A  hindrance  to  (not  in)  one's  progress. 
independent  — See  dependent  above. 
insight          — Shakspere  had  wonderful  insight  into  (not  in  or  of) 

character. 
listen  — Listen   to    (not   at)    him.     One   may   also   listen  for 

something  one  expects  to  hear. 

live  •• — I  live  in  New  York  at  Broadway  and  118th  street. 

mention        — I  made  mention  of  (not  on)  it.     Or,  more  briefly,  I 

mentioned  it. 

need  — I  am  not  in  need  of  (not  for)  anything. 

part  — He  parted  from  his  parents  in  tears,  but  he  refused  to 

part  with  his  legacy. 


comment 

comply 

confer 

confide 

connect 
contrast 
customary 

deal 
dependent 

die 


due 


employ 

familiar 
give 


94 


UL,  K 


;>!>i>t  — I  planned  for  (not  on)  a  long  journey. 

revenge          — He  wished  to  be  revenged  on  (not  to)  all  hip  enemies. 
search  —The  miner  searched  for  gold  (or,  was  in  search  of  p 

secret  — The  secret  of  (not  to)  success  is  confidence. 

separation     — Byron's  separation  from  (not  with)  his  wifo  <>ml» 

him. 

set  out          — We  then  set  out  for  (not  to)  Italy. 
sick  — I  am  sick  with  (not  of)  the  grippe.     But  sick  of  it  is 

correct  if  the  meaning  is  disgusted  with  it. 
similar          — This  is  similar  to  (not  with)  that. 
smil.-  — She  smiled  at  (not  to)  the  captain. 

student          — He  was  a  student  of  chemistry  in  (or  at)  Amherst 

College. 

surprise        — I  was  surprised  at  (not  of)  her  absence. 
surround       — He  was  surrounded  by  (not  with)  a  mob. 
treatment      — His  harsh  treatment  of  (not  to)  his  brother  caused 

th<>  trouble. 
wait  —I'll  wait  for  (not  on)  you.     (I  am  not  your  servant.) 

But  a  servant  waits  on  his  master. 

76.  Redundant  Prepositions.  There  is  a  marked  tendency 
to  heap  up  prepositions  needlessly.  Sometimes  a  particular 
redundant  preposition  may  be  regarded  as  allowed  by  idiom; 
but  on  the  principle  of  saving  useless  words — a  very  important 
principle  for  successful  business — it  is  usually  desirable  to  omit 
such  needless  words  as  are  illustrated  below: 


(Incorrect) 

(1)  I  went  to  home. 

(I  went  to  my  home  would  be 
correct,  however.) 

(2)  Keep  off  of  the  grass. 

(3)  I    don't    remember  of  hear- 

ing it. 

(4)  He  would  not  accept  of  our 

hospitality. 

(5)  Taste  of  this  pie. 

(6)  Put  it  inside  of  the  room. 


(Correct) 

(1)  1  went  home. 

(Home  is  an  adverb  here; 
the  construction  does  not 
admit  a  preposition.) 

(2)  Keep  off  the  grass. 

(3)  I  don't  remember  hearing  it. 

(4)  He    would    not    accept    our 

hospitality. 

(5)  Taste  this  pie. 

(6)  Put  it  inside  the  room. 
(When  inside  is  a  noun,  how- 
ever, of  is  required;  e.  g., 
'The  Inside  of  the  Cup.") 


PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS  95 

A  good  many  prepositions  are  also  adverbs,  and  are  much 
used  unnecessarily  in  their  adverbial  sense.  Up  is  a  particular- 
ly common  offender  in  this  way,  being  used  needlessly  with  a 
great  many  verbs.  Anyone  interested  in  saving  time  for  him- 
self or  his  employer  may  profitably  consider  whether  the 
italicized  words  really  add  anything  ki  such  combinations  as 
the  following:  eat  up,  burn  up  (sometimes  down),  save  up, 
settle  up,  finish  up,  open  up,  rest  up,  rose  up,  etc.  In  the 
following  cases  the  italicized  words  are  superfluous: 

(1)  It  is  harder  than  you  think  for.         (3)  Where  is  my  hat  at? 

(2)  He  will  continue  on.  (4)  Where  have  you  been  to? 

An  opposite  error  occurs  in  a  few  cases  where  a  preposition 
is  really  needed. 

(Incorrect)  Correct 

1.  That  book  is  no  use.  1.  That  book  is  of  no  use. 
(Use  cannot  be  a  predicate  noun 

identical  with  book.) 

2.  Were  you  home  yesterday?  2.  Were  you  at  home  yesterday? 

3.  I  had  only  a  couple   hours.  3.  I  had  only  a  couple  of  hours 

(or,  better,  two  hours). 

EXERCISE  34 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences  with  prepositions : 

1.  I  was the  opera  last  night. 

2.  The  word  ingenious  is  different the  word  ingenuous. 

3.  The  next  day  we  set  out Washington. 

4.  Go  in.     I'll  wait you. 

5.  This  light  is  connected the  regular  city  service. 

6.  Many  thousands  of  people  die  yearly consumption. 

7.  When  we  arrived New  York,  the  Mauretania  was  already 

port. 

8.  She  was  very  different her  sister. 

9.  My  father  was  very  angry me. 

10.  We  parted the  Browns Naples. 

11.  He  devoted  his  leisure golfing. 

1 2.  I  cannot  comply your  wishes. 


Mti  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

77.  Definition  of  Conjunctions.     Conjunctions,  as  the  word 
itself  suggests,  join  something.    They  may  join  (a)  words  or 
(b)  groups  of  words. 

EXAMPLE    of  (a) :  Washington  and  Hamilton  were  friends. 
EXAMPLES  of  (b) :  1.  The  canoe  floated  under  the  bridge  and  down  the 

rjver. 
2.  I  paddled  cautiously  because  the  water  was  deep. 

Groups  of  words,  of  course,  are  either  phrases  (as  in  example  1) 
or  clauses  (as  in  2).    In  the  latter  sentence,  because  connects 
two  statements.    What  are  they? 
Conjunctions  are  not  inflected. 

78.  Kinds  of  Conjunctions.     In  matters  of  sentence  struc- 
ture and  punctuation,  it  is  important  to  know  the  two  classes 
of  conjunctions,  and  to  learn  to  distinguish  them  from  adverbs. 
Conjunctions  are  coordinating  or  subordinating. 

(a)  Coordinating  conjunctions  connect  words  of  equal  rank 
in  the  sentence,  phrases  of  equal  rank,  or  clauses  of  equal  rank. 

EXAMPLES:     (a)  John  and  Mary  went  (connecting  words). 

(b)  They  went  across  the  bridge  and  through  the  field 

(connecting  phrases). 

(c)  John  turned  up  his  coat  collar,  but  the  wind  chilled 

him  (connecting  clauses). 

(b)  Subordinating  conjunctions  connect  subordinate  clauses 
with  principal  clauses.     Because,  in  example  (b)  2,  Section  77, 
is  a  subordinating  conjunction.     Common  subordinating  con- 
junctions are  as  follows: 

(a)  Denoting  time:  after,  before,  since,  till  (until),  when,  while,  as  long  as, 

as  soon  as. 

(b)  Denoting   condition   or   concession:  although    (though),    if,    unless, 

whether. 

(c)  Denoting  cause  or  reason :  as,  because,  for,  since. 

(d)  Denoting  purpose  or  result:  lest,  so  that,  that,  in  order  that. 

(e)  Denoting  comparison:  as  if ,  as  though,  than.1 

1  This  list  ignores  the  distinction  sometimes  made  in  grammars  between  subordinat- 
ing; conjunctions  and  relative  (or  conjunctive)  adverbs,  because  there  is  no  practical  ad- 
vantage in  making  such  a  distinction.  For  is  sometimes  classed  with  coordinating  con- 
junctions, but  seems  subordinating  in  the  sense  mentioned  in  (c). 


PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS  97 

Students  will  be  wise  to  distinguish  carefully  between  the 
subordinating  conjunctions  in  the  foregoing  list  and  the  follow- 
ing words: 


accordingly 

hence 

moreover 

therefore 

also 

however 

nevertheless 

too 

besides 

indeed 

so 

consequently 

likewise 

then 

further,  furthermore  (in  the  sense  of  moreover) 

These  words  are  usually  adverbs;  they  indicate  some  thought 
relation  between  statements,  but  they  do  not  express  gram- 
matical connection  between  clauses  as  the  subordinating  con- 
junctions do.  The  distinction  is  of  value  mainly  in  punctua- 
tion. A  true  subordinating  conjunction  is  preceded  by  a 
comma  or  possibly  by  no  punctuation  at  all  (see  Sections  92 
and  97);  the  words  in  the  above  list  require  a  semicolon  or 
some  connective. 

EXAMPLES  : 

(a)  He  walked  slowly,  since  the  meeting  was  not  to  begin  for  an 

hour.     (Since  is  a  conjunction.) 

(b)  The  meeting  was  not  to  begin  for  an  hour;  hence  he  walked 

slowly.     (Hence  is  an  adverb.     Inserting  and  before  hence 
would  make  the  semicolon  needless.) 

A  very  large  percentage  of  sentence  errors  (see  Section  10) 
occur  through  placing  only  a  comma  before  one  of  the  words 
in  the  list  above. 

The  commonest  offender  in  the  list  is  so  (varied  occasionally 
by  consequently  and  therefore),  which  students  are  inclined  to 
use  loosely  for  almost  aily  sort  of  connection  between  thoughts. 
Sometimes  so  that,  a  legitimate  subordinating  conjunction  of 
purpose  or  result,  is  meant  and  may  be  substituted;  but  more 
often  the  meaning  really  is  that  the  preceding  statement 
is  a  reason  for  the  following  statement.  In  such  a  case  it 
is  frequently  better  to  change  the  construction,  making  the 
first  statement  dependent  by  the  use  of  since  or  as  or  because, 
and  omitting  so.  Thus,  "It  rained,  so  we  did  not  go/7  would 
be  avoided  by  any  careful  writer  except  in  quoting  simple  con- 


98  VOCATIONAL  ENGL I  s  1 1 

versation,  and  even  then  a  semicolon  would  probably  replace 
the  comma  (see  Section  97).  This  sentence  may  be  varied  in 
several  ways,  as  follows: 

As  it  rained,  we  did  not  go.  It  rained,  and  so  we  did  not  go. 

We  did  not  go,  because  it  rained.  It  rained,  so  that  we  did  not  go. 

In  most  cases  students  can  profitably  adopt  one  of  these  ways 
of  avoiding  the  use  of  so  as  a  conjunction. 

(c)  Certain  conjunctions  are  used  idiomatically  in  pairs,  and 
are  accordingly  called  correlative  conjunctions.  The  pairs  m 
most  common  use  are: 

cither — or  both — and 

n  c  i  t  her — nor  aa  well — as 

whether — or  at  once  (alike) — and 
not  only — but  also 

Some  of  the  words  before  the  dashes,  taken  alone,  are  strictly 
adverbs;  it  is  only  as  part  of  the  pair  that  they  are  classed  with 
conj  unctions.  Two  important  cautions  are  desirable  in  relation 
to  correlatives: 

1.  Neither  should  always  be  followed  by  nor — never  by  or. 

2.  The  construction  following  the  second  correlative  should 
be  like  the  construction  following  the  first. 

(Bad)  (Good) 

(1)  He  was  not  only  surprised,  but          (1)  Not  only  was  he  surprised,  but 

his  brother  was  also.  his  brother  was  also. 

(2)  He  either  came  late  or  not  at          (2)  He  came  either  late  or  not  at 

all.  all. 

In  the  first  example  in  the  left  column,  a  whole  clause 
follows  but,  though  there  has  been  only  one  word  after  not  only. 
"He  was  not  only  surprised  but  indignant"  would  be  proper, 
but  when  a  complete  assertion  follows  one  balanced  member,  a 
complete  assertion  should  also  follow  the  other. 

79.  Notes  on  Conjunctions.  The  work  of  conjunctions  is 
to  indicate  the  exact  relations  between  words,  phrases,  and 
clauses,  and  they  are  therefore  exceedingly  important.  Try  in 


PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS  99 

the  blank  each  word  in  the  list  below  and  note  the  variations 
in  meaning  that  result: 

he  drove  fast,  a  wreck  occurred. 

although  because  before  after 

when  whenever  if 

A  number  of  words  may  be  either  prepositions  or  sub- 
ordinating conjunctions.  It  is  easy  to  decide  which  they  are, 
however,  because  when  subordinating  conjunctions  they  must 
be  followed  by  a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

EXAMPLES:     (a)  He  went  for  the  doctor. 

(b)  He  went,  for  it  was  very  urgent. 

In  (a)  for  is  a  preposition,  showing  the  relation  between  the 
noun  doctor  and  the  verb  went,  and  forming  an  adverbial  phrase. 
In  (b)  it  is  a  conjunction,  because  it  is  followed  by  a  clause  of 
which  it  is  the  subject  and  was  very  urgent  is  the  predicate. 
Some  other  words  that  may  similarly  be  either  prepositions  or 
conjunctions  are  after,  before,  since,  till,  and  until. 

Difficulties  and  errors  are  frequent  in  the  following  cases: 

(a)  And  ought  to  connect  words  or  groups  of  words  of 
equal  rank.     It  does  not  do  this  in  such  colloquial  sentences  as 
"Try  and  come/'  "Be  sure  and  vote  for  me."     The  real  mean- 
ing of  these  sentences  is,  "Try  to  come/'  "Be  sure  to  vote  for 
me."     The  substitution  of  and  for  to  in  cases  like  these  is  very 
common  in  conversation,  but  careful  writers  usually  avoid  it. 

(b)  Except  and  without,  in  present  use,  are  prepositions; 
unless  is  a  conjunction.     Formerly  the  first  two  words  also  were 
in  use  as  conjunctions,  with  about  the  same  meaning  as  unless; 
as  in  this  example  from  Psalms,  "Except  the  Lord  build  the 
house,  they  labor  in  vain  that  build  it."    Such  usage  sounds 
antiquated  now  and  students  should  avoid  it. 

EXAMPLES  : 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

(1)  We   cannot  have   our   party  (1)  We   cannot   have   our   party 

without  it  stops  raining.   .  unless  it  stops  raining. 

(2)  He  had  no  friends  except  Tom  (2)  He  had  no  friends  unless  Tom 

might  be  so  considered.  might  be  so  considered. 


100  VOCATIONAL  ENGL 1  s  1 1 

(c)  //  and  whether.    Do  not  use  if  in  the  place  of  whether 
in  such  a  sentence  as  "I  do  not  know  if  I  can  go."     Whether  is 
preferable  here  and  or  not  may  be  added,  if  desired,  to  show  an 
alternative.     "I  can  go  if  he  does"  is  perfectly  correct,  however. 

(d )  Like  as  a  conj  unction.    The  misuse  of  like  as  a  conj  unc- 
tion, in  place  of  as  or  as  if  or  as  though,  is  very  common  in 
some  parts  of  the  United  States.    Yet  no  blunder  is  more 
likely  to  brand  one  in  the  eyes  of  those  who  are  careful. 

EXAMPLES: 

"  correct)  (Correct) 

l     It  looks  like  it  would  run.  (I)  It  looks  as  if  it  would  rain. 

(2)  I  wish  you  could  play  like  your  (2)  I  wish  you  could  play  as  your 
sister  does.  sister  does. 

Probably  some  of  the  confusion  in  this  matter  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  in  example  2  (incorrect),  like  would  be  perfectly  proper 
if  does  were  omitted.  In  "I  wish  you  could  play  like  your 
sister,"  like  performs  the  office  of  a  preposition.  But  it  has  not 
been  accepted  by  careful  writers  and  speakers  as  a  conjunction. 

(e)  Than  is  a  conjunction.    For  this  reason  we  cannot  say, 
"I  am  taller  than  him."  making  it  a  preposition  followed  by 
the  objective  (accusative)  form  him.    We  must  say,  "I  am 
toller  than  he  (is)."     "I  chose  foer  rather  than  him"  is  correct, 
•however;  not  because  than  is  a  preposition,  but  because  him  is 
the  object  in  the  elliptical  second  clause,  just  as  her  is  the  object 
in  the  first  clause.   In  other  words,  this  sentence,  fully  expressed, 
means,  "I  chose  her  rather  than  (I  chose)  him." 

(f )  As  ....  as  and  so  ....  as.     In  a  positive  compari- 
son we  use  as  ....  as. 

EXAMPLE  :    Cleveland  is  as  large  as  Cincinnati. 
In  a  negative  comparison  we  generally  use  so  ....  as. 
EXAMPLE:    Chicago  is  not  so  large  as  New  York. 
EXERCISE  35 

(a)  Insert  except  or  without  or  unless  in  the  blanks  below 

1.  One  cannot  win  in  the  business  field by  making  a  careful  study 

of  each  detail. 

2.  They  all  went  fishing John. 


PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS  101 

3.  He  never  went his  coat in  warm  weather. 

4.  One  cannot  hope  to  get  more  pay  for  his  work he  does  more 

work  for  his  pay. 

5.  when    the   editor    accepts    manuscripts,    the    writer 

a  previous  understanding  does  not  hear  from  his  paper he 

sends  return  postage. 

(b)  Make  whatever  improvements  you  can  in  the  connec- 
tives of  the  following  sentences : 

1.  I  don't  know  if  I  can  go  or  not. 

2.  Your  instructions  are  not  clear  and  I  failed  to  get  the  answer.     (Try 

rearrangement  with  because.) 

3.  Do  not  decrease  the  time  of  exposure;  cut  down  the  light.     (What  word 

after  the  semicolon  would  help  the  sense?) 

4.  One  should  dress  neatly.     He  should  not  be  fastidious.     (What  word 

would  connect  these  two  sentences  to  advantage?) 

5.  He  was  hungry  and  he  stole  a  loaf  of  bread. 

6.  It  looks  like  I'd  have  to  try  again. 

7.  Let  us  try  and  find  out  what  is  good. 

EXERCISE  36 

What  conjunction  would  you  use  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences?  List  the  conjunctions  as  coordinating  and  sub- 
ordinating. 

1.  He  wore  a  heavy  coat the  day  was  warm. 

2.  He  walked  slowly he  were  lame. 

3.  He  came  in  suddenly we  had  time  to  warn  the  family. 

4.  He  left  a  dark  mark he  put  his  paws. 

5.  They  paid  their  bills they  had  the  money. 

6.  Mother  put  up  lunch I  got  the  car  ready. 

7.  Father  bought  a  hundred-dollar  bond I  bought  a  fifty. 

8.  He  will  be  here  on  time the  train  is  late. 

9.  John  must  come  this  way  now the  bridge  is  out  at  Dana. 

10.  We  hurried  along it  was  growing  late. 

11.  Cider  vinegar  is  not strong . —  distilled  vinegar. 

12.  I  wish  I  could  skate Mary  can. 

13.  I  feel  that  John  knows  more  _     Tom  does. 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  37 

A.  Which  of  the  following  sentences  need  semicolons  before 
the  italicized  words?   (Read  again  Section  78b.) 

1  lie  came  slowly  through  the  hall  as  though  nothing  had  happened. 

2.  He  has  a  cold  besides  I  feel  the  day  is  too  raw. 

: ;.  He  was  not  well  therefore  his  mother  kept  him  at  home. 

4.  He  had  no  small  change  so  he  passed  the  beggar  by. 

5.  He  was  dismissed  because  he  was  not  able  to  carry  bis  v 

B.  Choose  the  correct  word  in  italics  in  each  of  the  follow- 
ing sentences. 

1 .  I  do  not  know  (if,  whether)  he  doesn't. 

2.  I  do  not  know  (if,  whether)  he  knows. 

3.  Nobody  else  can  yell  (like,  as)  him. 

4.  Nobody  else  can  yell  (like,  as)  he  does. 

5.« I  think  you  can  draw  better  than  (he,  him). 

6.  Be  sure  (to,  and)  take  your  time. 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  VI 

1.  Why  is  the  English  preposition  so  important  an  element  in  the 
language? 

2.  What  is  the  distinction  between  between  and  among ?  In  and  in/of 

3.  Without  actually  expressing  number  how  can  you  indicate  it  by 
the  use  of  between  and  among?    Longer  and  longest?    Each  other  and  one 
anothert 

4.  Why  is  "between  each  row"  illogical?    What  is  a  better  statement? 
5:  Can  you  use  the  italicized  words  in  Section  75  with  the  proper 

prepositions?    Try  it. 

6.  What  is  redundancy?    When  is  a  word  superfluous? 

7.  How  can  you  make  the  connecting  word  (conjunction)  do  a  great 
deal  of  the  work  of  the  sentence?     (Sec.  79.) 

8.  What  is  the  proper  punctuation  mark  between  the  members  of  a 
compound  sentence  when  no  conjunction  is  employed? 

9.  What  is  the  distinction  between  except  and  without?    If  and  whether? 
Like  and  as  iff    la  "than  him"  good  English?    Why? 


CHAPTER  VII 

ERRORS  THAT  CAUSE  OBSCURITY 

80.  The  Need  of  Clearness.  The  first  purpose  of  speech 
or  writing  is,  of  course,  the  transmission  of  thought.  But  not 
all  communications  accomplish  this  end.  What  is  the  meaning 
of  the  following  sentence? 

John  told  Charlie  that  his  books  were  in  his  locker. 

Clearly  it  may  mean  several  things.  It  may  mean  that 
John's  books  were  in  his  own  locker;  that  they  were  in  Charlie's 
locker;  that  Charlie's  books  were  in  Charlie's  locker;  or  that 
they  were  in  John's  locker.  This  sentence,  therefore,  is  useless. 
It  is  not  clear. 

What  two  meanings  can  you  get  from  the  following  sentence? 

We  were  in  danger  of  being  killed  more  than  once. 

Of  course  there  is  no  danger  of  a  real  misunderstanding  of  this 
sentence;  the  worst  that  can  happen  is  a  laugh  at  the  expense 
of  the  speaker.  But  it  is  not  to  one's  credit  to  be  an  uncon- 
scious humorist. 

It  is  very  necessary  that  a  writer  read  over  what  he  has 
written  before  he  considers  his  task  complete.  Often  small 
errors  of  the  careless  kind  slip  in — perhaps  the  spelling  of  off 
with  one  /,  or  the  omission  of  a  or  the — omissions  which  leave 
the  reader  uncertain  as  to  the  meaning.  Obscurities  some- 
times result  from  a  failure  to  make  the  first  and  last  parts  of 
a  sentence  agree  in  form  or  sense,  owing  in  most  cases  to  the 
superior  speed  of  the  mind  over  the  hand.  Clear,  precise 
English  is  not  easily  written.  It  is  often  necessary  to  recast 
sentences  and  paragraphs  to  make  sure  that  there  is  no  pos- 
sibility of  a  misunderstanding. 

The  preceding  chapters  have  dealt  with  the  fundamental 
laws  of  the  sentence  and  the  parts  of  speech.  The  following 

103 


104  VOCATIONAL  I  NCLISH 

sections  will  single  out  for  special  attention  a  number  of  com- 
mon errors  that  result  in  obscurity. 

81.  Misplaced  Words,  Phrases,  or  Clauses.  The  second 
bad  sentence  in  the  previous  section  illustrates  the  principle 
that  modifiers  should  usually  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to 
the  words  they  modify.  Some  very  al^unl  statements  result 
from  misplaced  words.  Why  are  the  following  sentences  am- 
i  iir'ious?  Explain  the  change  of  position  of  the  modifiers 
necessary  to  correct  the  trouble. 

1 .  Wanted:  Girls  to  sew  buttons  on  the  8th  floor. 

2.  I  saw  a  man  digging  a  well  with  a  large  nose. 

Be  especially  careful  to  place  the  adverb  near  the  word  it 
modifies.  Note  the  error  in  the  following  sentence: 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

It  is  the  largest  fish  I  almost  ever          It  is  almost  the  largest  fish  I  ever 
caught.     (I  "almost  caught'1  it.)  caught. 


EXERCISE  38 

Correct  the  following  sentences,  giving  reasons  for  each 
correction: 

1.  I  planned  to  have  my  suit  pressed  every  day  this  week. 

2.  We  hurriedly  packed  our  tents  as  soon  as  the  sun  rose  and  cooked  our 

breakfast. 

3.  Ericksen  is  to  be  tried  for  carrying  concealed  weapons  on  Friday. 

4.  Wanted:  An  attendant  for  an  old  lady  who  can  walk  rapidly. 

5.  He  was  untruthful;  he  even  lied  to  his  mother. 

6.  I  should  not  pay  for  two  meals;  I  only  ate  my  breakfast. 

7.  She  was  the  prettiest  girl  I  almost  ever  met. 

8.  All  the  team  were  not  present. 

9.  He  was  an  ex-Italian  banker. 

Are  you  sure  that  you  have  the  feeling  of  error  when  you 
read  the  foregoing  sentences?  It  is  not  enough  that  you  see 
the  error;  you  must  have  a  feeling  akin  to  intuition  that  "It 
was  the  best  apple  I  almost  ever  ate"  is  really  something  very 
different  from  the  idea  you  had  in  mind. 


ERRORS  THAT  CAUSE  OBSCURITY  105 

82.  Understood  Words.  To  save  words  and  avoid  repeti- 
tion, we  often  omit  part  of  one  construction  that  corresponds 
to  another  construction  in  the  sentence.  Thus  we  may  have, 
for  instance,  one  object  for  two  prepositions,  or  one  participle 
completing  two  verbs. 

EXAMPLES  : 

(1)  John  was  going  to,  and  Charlie  returning  from  town. 

(2)  We  are  and  shall  be  going  to  church  each  week. 

In  the  first  example  town  is  the  object  of  both  to  and  from. 
In  the  second,  are  going  and  shall  be  going  are  the  full  forms,  but 
to  avoid  repetition  of  sound  and  to  save  words  we  omit  the 
first  going. 

Sometimes,  however,  the  word  following  one  construction 
will  not  logically  complete  the  other. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

We  have  and  will  continue  to  defy          We  have  defied  and  will  continue 
him.  to  defy  him. 

Defied  is  required  to  complete  the  first  verb;  to  defy,  the  second; 
obviously  to  defy  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  will  not  supply  the. 
word  defied  needed  to  complete  have. 

.  Why  is  the  following  ambiguous?  Are  you  sure  that  the 
reader  will  "understand"  the  same  words  you  have  in  mind? 
Correct  it  in  two  different  ways. 

She  blames  me  more  than  you. 

One  very  common  type  of  sentence  in  which  an  "under- 
stood" word  needs  to  be  supplied  is  of  this  sort: 

John  is  as  tall,  if  not  taller,  than  Frank. 

The  words  as  tall  require  another  as;  than  does  not  properly 
complete  the  construction.  In  many  cases  sentences  like  this 
are  less  awkward  if  the  first  comparison  is  completed  and  the 
second  left  incomplete,  thus: 

John  is  as  tall  as  Frank,  if  not  taller. 


106  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  30 

Correct  the  following.  Take  your  time  to  allow  the  feeling 
of  error  to  develop.  Be  careful  to  supply  any  word  needed, 
but  not  found  associated  with  a  similar  construction  in  the 
sentence. 

1.  Cleveland  is  as  large,  if  not  larger,  than  Cincinnati. 
He  can  do  better  or  at  least  as  well  as  John. 

3.  He  has  already,  or  if  not,  will  soon  go. 

4.  Whether  he  was  going  or  returning  from  town  I  did  not  hear. 

5.  They  will  pay  me  more  than  you. 

6.  Nashville  is  nearer  Kansas  City  than  Chicago. 

7.  I  have  always,  and  I  hope  always  will,  t<>ll  my  mother  the  truth. 

8.  Dishonesty  never  has  and  never  will  dominate  Americans. 

9.  I  have  never,  and  never  will,  defend  the  devil.  — Ingcrnoll 
10.  He  sat  on  the  wagon,  loaded  with  beer. 

83.  Omission  of  a  and  the.  A  and  an  originally  meant 
one.  They  are  related  to  the  German  ein,  meaning  one.  This 
explains  the  idiom  of  the  Pennsylvania  Dutch,  "It's  one  fine 
day,"  "She's  one  fine  girl."  Fewer  errors  would  occur  in  speech 
and  writing  if  we  kept  the  idea  of  one  more  in  mind. 

"He  employed  a  bookkeeper  and  stenographer"  contains  but 
one  a;  hence  one  .person  was  employed  for  the  two  duties. 

"He  employed  a  bookkeeper  and  a  stenographer"  clearly  has 
two  ones  in  view. 

"A  black  and  white  dog,  a  black,  and  a  white  dog,"  mentions 
three  dogs. 

Similarly  it  may  be  necessary  to  repeat  the  in  order  to  indi- 
cate definitely  the  number  of  persons  or  things  meant. 

EXAMPLES:    The  physician  and  surgeon  for  the  railroad  (ambiguous; 

it  literally  means  but  one  person). 

The  physician  and  the  surgeon  for  the  railroad  {two 
persons  unmistakably  designated). 

In  cases  where  there  could  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  meaning, 
however,  the  second  article  may  be  omitted. 

EXAMPLE:    The  father  and  mother  of  the  boy. 


ERRORS  THAT  CAUSE  OBSCURITY  107 

EXERCISE  4O 

A.  Study  the  following  word  groups.     Exactly  what  do 
they  mean?     How  would  you  write  the  plural  of  sentence  5? 
Of  sentence  6? 

1.  A  black  and  white  dog. 

2.  A  black  and  a  white  dog. 

3.  The  black  and  white  dogs. 

4.  The  black  and  the  white  dogs. 

5.  The  secretary  and  treasurer. 

6.  The  secretary  and  the  treasurer. 

B.  Are  the  following  statements  clear?     Why? 

7.  Found:    A  pair  of  silk  ladies'  gloves. 

8.  Tell  me  how  old  Mrs.  Anderson  is. 

9.  He  wanted  common  sense. 

10.  I  can't  find  one  of  my  books. 

11.  For  though  they  sing  nicely,  they  cannot  like  thee. 

—"The  Gentle  Shepherd" 

84.  Dangling  Participial  Constructions.  What  is  called  the 
"dangling"  (or  "loose"  or  "hanging")  participle  is  a  very 
fruitful  source  of  misunderstanding  or  absurdity. 

EXAMPLE  :     Coming  up  the  street  the  postoffice  was  seen. 

A  participle  ordinarily  modifies  the  nearest  noun  or  pronoun 
that  it  is  possible  for  it  to  modify.  When  a  participle  comes 
at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  we  generally  understand  it*  to 
modify  the  subject  of  the  sentence.  But  in  the  above  example 
the  postoffice  is  the  subject;  the  sentence  really  says  the  post- 
office  was  coming  up  the  street! 

The  cause  of  most  errors  of  this  kind  is  a  change  in  the 
"point  of  view"  of  the  sentence.  One  may  see  an  action  from 
at  least  two  positions:  (a)  as  one  of  the  actors;  (b)  as  a  witness, 
merely.  For  instance,  a  soldier  may  describe  a  battle  in  which 
he  fought;  or  the  same  battle  may  be  described  by  a  watcher 
on  the  hills.  The  soldier  would  write,  "We  marched  into 


108  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

battle."  The  watcher  might  say,  "The  men  were  seen  advanc- 
ing." The  first  sentence  is  active;  the  second  is  passive.  1  h« 
point  of  view  is  entirely  different.  Amateur  writers  must 
realize  with  Mrs.  Wiggs  that  they  "can't  be  comin'  and  goin' 
at  the  same  time."  In  other  words,  they  can't  be  in  and  out 
of  an  action  at  the  same  time. 

"Coming  up  the  street"  is  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  one 
walking.  It  is  in  the  active  construction;  i.e.,  the  subject  (it 
should  be  we  or  I)  is  the  doer  of  the  action.  "The  postoffice 
was  seen"  is  from  the  point  of  view  of  an  observer  who  had  no 
part  in  "coming  up  the  street."  The  subject,  postoffice,  is 
the  receiver  of  the  action.  The  construction  is  passive.  There 
has  been  a  change  in  construction  from  the  active  to  the  pas- 
sive within  one  sentence.  Such  a  change  in  the  general  plan  of 
construction  within  a  sentence  is  almost  sure  to  be  bad. 

This  error  is  not  confined  to  participial  constructions. 
Note  the  following  sentences: 

1.  On  cranking  tho  machine  it  refused  to  go. 

2.  In  an  agony  of  terror  the  door  was  burst  open. 

3.  Although  a  great  liar,  we  were  forced  to  believe  him. 

In  sentence  1  cranking  is  not  a  participle,  but  a  gerund  (see 
Section  63)  because,  with  its  object,  it  is  used  in  a  phrase  with 
the  preposition  on.  We  expect  a  gerund,  like  a  participle,  to 
refer  to  the  nearest  noun  or  pronoun  or  to  the  subject  of  the 
sentence.  Example  1  is  grammatically  constructed  so  as  to 
suggest  that  the  machine  cranked  itself. 

In  examples  2  and  3  we  have,  respectively,  a  phrase  and  a 
condensed  clause  that  seem  to  modify  the  subjects;  yet  it  is 
absurd  to  attribute  "an  agony  of  terror"  to  the  door,  and  the 
third  does  not  mean  that  we  were  "a  great  liar."  One  can- 
not be  too  careful  to  make  certain  that  a  phrase  or  a  clause 
of  any  sort  will  be  understood  by  every  reader  to  apply  to  the 
word  one  means  to  apply  it  to.  Corrections  may  be  made  in 
various  ways — by  changing  the  subject  to  a  word  that  the 
opening  phrase  or  clause  can  logically  refer  to,  by  expanding 


ERRORS  THAT  CAUSE  OBSCURITY  109 

the  first  few  words  into  a  complete  clause,  etc.     Study  care- 
fully the  following  corrections  of  the  bad  examples  on  page  108: 

1.  On  cranking  the  machine,  we  could  not  make  it  go. 

2.  In  an  agony  of  terror  he  burst  open  the  door. 

3.  Although  he  was  a  great  liar,  we  were  forced  to  believe  him. 


EXERCISE  41 

Make  all  needed  corrections  in  the  following: 

1.  Emitting  clouds  of  black  smoke,  we  saw  the  steamer  put  out  to  sea. 

2.  Having  hurriedly  swallowed  our  breakfast,  the  old  horse  was  whipped 

into  a  reckless  trot. 

3.  After  being  declared  of  legal  age  my  father  made  over  the  papers  to 

me. 

4.  Well  knowing  this  truth,  located  in  a  foreign  district,  teaching  some  of 

the  two-year  vocational  classes  .  .  .  .  ,  it  occurred  to  us  that  we 
might  be  of  assistance  to  the  English  teacher. 

5.  After  trying  in  vain  to  reach  me,  I  escaped  from  the  horse  by  dodging. 

under  the  manger. 

6.  I  bought  a  new  bicycle,  being  equipped  with  a  coaster  brake. 

7.  In  a  fit  of  uncontrolled  anger,  the  slave  was  beaten  by  his  master. 

8.  Although  a  great  sinner,  the  preacher  told  him  that  there  was  hope.. 

9.  If  lost,  H.  K.  Jones  will  pay  a  reward. 

10.  If  right,  mark  the  sentence  "R."     (What  is  the  subject  of  mark?} 

85.  Obscure  Reference.  One  of  the  greatest  hindrances  to 
clearness  is  the  faulty  use  of  pronouns.  Since  a  pronoun  takes 
the  place  of  a  noun,  it  is  necessary  that  we  should  know  what 
noun  is  being  replaced  by  the  pronoun,  and  if  there  is  any 
doubt  about  this  noun,  called  the  antecedent,  the  sentence  is 
not  clear.  No  one  can  tell  certainly  the  meaning  of  the  follow- 
ing sentence: 

The  nurse  told  Anna  that  she  felt  bad  today,  but  that  she  would 
probably  be  better  tomorrow. 

The  choice  of  she  with  two  possible  antecedents  makes  the 
sentence  obscure. 

Careless  people  often  use  a  pronoun  to  refer  to  something 
they  have  in  mind,  but  have  not  expressed.  Be  sure  that  the 


110  \  "i  . \TIONAL  ENGLISH 

antecedent  is  definite.    An  advertisement  of  a  transfer  company 
in  an  Iowa  newspaper  reads: 

Don't  lie  awake  fearing  you'll  miss  your  train.     We'll  attend  to  that. 

Study  the  following  sentences.    What  is  the  antecedent  of 
tit    What  should  the  antecedent  be  in  each  case? 

( 1 )  Keep  your  head  up.    It  makes  you  round-shouldered. 

(2)  In  the  paper  it  says  crops  are  fine  in  Montana. 

A  relative  pronoun  is  like  other  pronouns  in  the  need  of  a 
clear  antecedent.  What  is  the  antecedent  of  which  in  the 
following  sentence? 

The  Germans  deprived  the  Belgian  children  of  their  food,  which  was 
very  bad  for  their  health. 

A  particularly  bad  fault  of  this  kind  consists  in  having  a 
pronoun  refer  to  different  antecedents  in  the  same  sentence 
(or  sometimes  in  adjoining  sentences). 

EXAMPLE:  As  long  as  we  have  good  motion  pictures,  children  should 
be  allowed  to  attend  them,  for  it  enlightens  them. 

How  would  you  correct  the  sentence? 

A  good  device  for  avoiding  trouble  with  the  antecedent  is 
often  found  in  conversational  arrangement.  This  allows  the 
use  of  a  new  set  of  pronouns.  "The  man  told  Father  his  cows 
were  in  the  corn"  might  have  several  meanings.  But  the  sen- 
tence, "'Your  cows  are  in  my  corn/  the  man  told  Father, "  or 
"  'My  cows  are  in  my  corn/  said  he  to  Father/'  is  very  definite. 

EXERCISE  42 

A.  Write  out  a  possible  version  of  the  following.  It  will  be 
necessary  to  replace  some  of  the  pronouns  with  nouns.  It  will 
not  do,  however,  to  repeat  Fred  too  often.  All  languages  seek 
to  avoid  repetition.  There  are  several  names  which  might  be 
applied  in  each  case;  viz.: 

.  Fred,  the  son,  the  boy 
the  father,  the  elder 
the  horse,  old  Charlie,  the  animal,  it1 

1  It  is  not  desirable  to  carry  substitute  naming  too  far.  Avoid  such  terms  as  pater 
familias  for  father,  member  of  the  equine  family  for  horse,  or  young  hopeful  for  son.  Re- 
peating the  simple  word  is  better  than  using  pompous  or  unnatural  substitutes. 


ERRORS  THAT  CAUSE  OBSCURITY  111 

1.  Fred  came  home  from  town  and  found  the  old  horse  caught  in  the  fence. 

He  was  very  much  excited,  and  tried  at  first  to  kick  down  the  post. 
Hearing  the  noise,  his  father  came  out  and  told  him  he  could  help 
him.  When  at  last  he  got  him  out  he  was  very  tired. 

B.  Rewrite  the  following: 

2.  It  is  desirable  in  developing  a  plate  to  have  a  stronger  developer  handy. 

If  it  is  under-exposed  place  it  in  the  strong  developer  if  it  is  not  too 
cold.  Action  can  be  increased  if  it  is  warmed  to  about  80°.  When 
the  image  shows  plainly  on  the  back  it  is  time  to  put  it  in  the  hypo, 
which  should  be  as  strong  as  it  can  be  made. 

3.  She  told  Mary  that  her  mother  was  ill. 

4.  The  sermon  was  short  and  after  he  had  finished  they  sang  a  hymn. 

5.  The  child  plays  with  the  dog  when  it  is  feeling  well. 

6.  Dogs  should  not  be  allowed  on  the  street  with  children  unless  they  are 

muzzled. 

7.  The  boys  had  to  swim  to  the  other  shore  which  was  dangerous. 

8.  They  got  a  nurse  for  the  baby  who  had  recently  come  from  Austria. 

9.  The  boys  removed  their  hats  and  soaked  them  in  water  after  which 

they  were  much  cooler. 

10.  Soldiers  should  keep  their  hands  out  of  their  pockets ;  that  is  unmilitary . 

C.  Can  you  find  an  antecedent  for  each  italicized  word 
in  the  following  passage?     Is  the  apparent  antecedent  in  each 
case  the  logical  one?     How  would  you  correct  the  passage? 

11.  A  roll  of  films  is  first  put  into  a  box  and  as  the  man  turns  the  handle 

it  gives  two  short  clicks  and  for  each  one  two  pictures  are  made. 
After  they  are  taken  out  .... 

EXERCISE  43 

Write  a  composition  of  a  hundred  words  about  Mother, 
little  Mary,  and  a  lady  caller.  Your  problem  will  be  to  refer 
accurately  to  one  or  the  other  of  the  characters  without  an 
awkward  repetition  of  the  name. 


QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  VII 

1.  Where,  in  general,  should  a  modifier  be  placed? 

2.  What  is  an  understood  word?    What  is  the  chief  danger  to  clearness 
from  omitting  such  words? 


112  \«H    \TIONAL  ENGLISH 

'.  hen  is  a  participle  said  to  "dangle"?  What  should  be  the  relation 
between  an  initial  participial  phrase  and  the  noun  or  pronoun  that  follows 
if 

4.  What  do  we  call  the  word  for  which  a  pronoun  stands?    What  i& 
the  relation  between  this  word  and  its  pronoun? 

5.  Why  is  it  undesirable  to  make  one  part  of  a  sentence  active  and 
another  passive? 

6.  How  far  is  it  wise  to  carry  substitute  naming  in  order  to  avoid 
repeating?     (Footnote,  p.  110.) 


CHAPTER  VIII 

PUNCTUATION 

86.  Why  Punctuate?     Punctuation  exists  for  the  purpose 
of  enabling  a  reader  to  get  the  exact  meaning  of  what  is  written 
or  printed,  as  readily  as  possible  and  with  the  least  possible 
chance  of  misunderstanding.     Punctuation  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence  causes  little  trouble  except  from  mere  carelessness. 
Every  schoolboy  knows  that  a  period  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a 
declarative  sentence,  and  at  the  end  of  an  imperative  sentence 
(unless  it  is  so  forceful  as  to  be  regarded  as  exclamatory). 
Likewise  it  is  well  understood  that  a  direct  question  must  be 
followed  by  a  question  mark,  and  an  exclamation  by  an  exclam- 
ation mark.     Real  trouble  as  to  punctuation,   then,   occurs 
within  the  sentence  and  is  due  largely  to  a  failure  to  realize 
the  general  principle  that  punctuation  is  an  aid  to  clearness. 
The  present  tendency  is  to  use  much  less  internal  punctuation 
than  was  formerly  common  and  to  confine  it  to  cases  of  direct 
practical  usefulness.     Such  cases  will  be  found  to  account  for 
the  practices  explained  in  this  chapter. 

87.  Word  Groups.     In  the  great  majority  of  our  sentences 
there  are  no  words  entirely  independent  of  other  words.    Like 
men,  words  have  habits  of  association  in  groups  and  these  word 
groups,  like  associations  of  men,    have  a  value  based    not 
entirely  upon  the  individuals  of  which  they  are  composed,  but 
partly  upon  the  nature  of  each  group  as  a  whole.     If  we  are  to 
grasp  the  full  meaning  of  a  sentence,  it  will  be  necessary  for 
us  to  appreciate  more  than  the  meaning  of  the  words  one  by 
one;  we  shall  have  to  understand  what  they  mean  in  combina- 
tion. 

How  shall  our  word  groups  be  indicated?  In  conversa- 
tion, pauses  and  the  inflection  of  the  voice  are  sufficient.  In 
writing  and  printing,  words  are  separated  from  each  other  by 
a  space;  any  two  sentences,  likewise,  are  kept  apart  by  space, 

113 


114  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

in  addition  to  the  proper  final  mark  for  the  one  and  the  capital 
that  indicates  the  beginning  of  the  other.  But  how  are  we  to 
show  the  groupings  of  words  within  a  sentence?  Sometimes, 
of  course,  the  meaning  is  so  simple  that  no  mistake  is  possible; 
but  often  a  sentence  of  twelve  words  may  consist  of  two  word 
groups  of  seven  and  five,  or  three  groups  of  four  each,  or 
various  other  combinations. 

We  might  conceivably  separate  word  groups  by  spaces  wider 
than  the  space  for  words  only. 

EXAMPLE:    Farther  down     the  stream  branched. 

The  wide  space  here  is  to  prevent  down  and  stream  from  coming 
together,  because  down  belongs  with  farther  and  stream  with 
branched]  unless  they  are  separated  in  some  way  there  is  danger 
of  a  misunderstanding.  But  expand  this  sentence  a  little  and 
the  grouping  may  be  very  different,  thus: 

Farther  down  the  stream     branched  the'great  highway. 

Now  stream  belongs  with  down,  not  with  branched'  and  branched 
is  the  predicate  verb  for  the  subject  highway.  But  there  is 
danger  that  the  reader  will  see  stream  branched  and  think  of 
stream  as  the  subject  of  branched]  hence  the  need  of  separating 
these  words  in  some  way. 

Of  course  the  spacing  of  word  groups  is  impractical,  how- 
ever; for  one  reason,  because  different  grades  of  spacing  would 
be  required.  Sometimes  we  need  to  separate  small  groups  of 
a  few  words  each;  sometimes  combinations  of  such  small  groups. 
The  result  of  an  attempt  to  use  space  only  would  be  that  the 
reader  would  have  to  carry  a  ruler  with  him  to  measure  accurate- 
ly the  size  of  the  spaces. 

88.  Indicating  Word  Groups  by  Punctuation.  Instead  of 
leaving  wider  space  between  word  groups  than  between  single 
words,  then,  we  long  ago  adopted  the  custom  of  inserting 
punctuation  marks.  In  ordinary  writing  there  are  three  prin- 
cipal grades  of  separation  between  word  groups,  indicated 
by  three  principal  types  of  punctuation: 


PUNCTUATION  115 

1.  The  comma  (,)  indicating  the  smallest  degree  of  separa- 
tion that  needs  to  be  marked. 

2.  The  semicolon  (;). 

3.  The  period1  '(.)   or  question  mark    (?)  or  exclamation 
mark  (!),  indicating  usually  the  end  of  a  sentence. 

USES  OF  THE  COMMA 

89.  Words  in  a  Series.     Examine  carefully  the  following 
sentence : 

s 

Harvard  Yale  Brown  the  University  of  Chicago  William  and  Mary 
Leland  Stanford  Dartmouth  and  Washington  and  Jefferson  are 
well  known  educational  institutions. 

Unless  you  happen  to  know  already  the  names  of  all  these 
institutions,  can  you  tell  certainly  how  many  are  mentioned? 
One  ignorant  of  college  names  might  easily  think  of  Leland 
Stanford  as  Leland  and  Stanford — two  institutions,  or  of 
Washington  and  Jefferson  as  two.  (In  fact  there  are  a  Wash- 
ington University  and  a  Jefferson  College,  as  well  as  Washing- 
ton and  Jefferson  College.)  There  are  four  kinds  of  names  in 
the  list: 

(a)  Single  words  (e.  g.,  Yale). 

(b)  A  phrase  (the  University  of  Chicago). 

(c)  A  double  form  (Leland  Stanford). 

(d)  Names  joined  by  and  (e.  g.,  William  and  Mary). 

Obviously  it  is  quite  as  necessary,  in  writing  English  as  in  selling 
groceries,  to  tie  up  different  articles  in  separate  packages;  the 
method  in  this  case  is  the  use  of  commas  according  to  the  rule 
that  words  in  a  series  are  separated  by  commas.  Properly  punc- 
tuated, the  sentence  above  reads  as  follows: 

Harvard,  Yale,  Brown,  the  University  of  Chicago,  William  and  Mary, 
Leland  Stanford,  Dartmouth,  and  Washington  and  Jefferson  are 
well  known  educational  institutions. 


1  Formerly  the  colon  (:)  occupied  a  position  between  the  semicolon  and  the  period, 
and  rarely  it  may  now  be  so  used  in  rather  elaborate  writing;  but  commonly  it  is  confined 
to  certain  special  purposes  to  be  dealt  with  in  Section  99. 

For  the  dash,  parentheses,  quotation  marks,  etc.,  see  Sections  100  S. 


116  VOCATIONAL  ENGLI  s  I ! 

There  is  a  widespread  idea,  supported  by  some  authority, 
that  no  comma  is  needed  between  the  last  two  items  of  a  series 
when  a  conjunction  is  used  between  tin  -in.  The  omission  of 
the  final  comma  is  illogical,  however,  and  may  result  in  ini<- 
understanding,  as  it  would  in  the  sentence  just  given.  If  the 
comma  after  Dartmouth  were  omitted,  it  would  be  impossible 
to  tell  whether  Dartmouth  and  Washington  and  Jefferson" 
meant  one  or  two  or  three  institutions.  Or  take  another 
example: 

We  took  canned  milk,   potatoes,  beans,  coffee,  bacon,  and  eggs  on 
the  trip. 

Without  the  comma  after  bacon,  the  reader  might  be  justified 
in  thinking  that  the  popular  dish  bacon  and  eggs  (cooked  to- 
gether) was  meant.  The  only  sound  rule  to  follow  is  that  words 
in  a  series  are  separated  by  commas,  and  that  a  comma  is 
necessary  before  a  connective  expressed  between  the  last  two, 
unless  those  two  are  related  more  closely  than  the  other  items 
in  the  list.1 

A  series  of  adjectives  modifying  one  noun  on  equal  terms 
are  likewise  separated  by  commas. 

EXAMPLE:    We  went  through  a  long,  hard,  dreary  winter. 

Note  that  dreary,  standing  next  to  the  word  modified,  is  not 
separated  from  it. 

A  series  of  adjectives  modifying  one  noun  are  not  always 
separated,  however.  A  short  series  in  very  common  use  as  a 
word  group  pronounced  together  may  go  without  punctuation. 

EXAMPLES:    (1)  He  was  a  noble  old  man. 

(2)  She  was  a  beautiful  little  girl. 

In  cases  like  these  it  can  be  argued  that  the  two  adjectives  are 
not  really  equal  modifiers.  The  first  sentence  does  not  exactly 
mean  that  the  man  was  noble  and  old;  it  means  that  a  certain 
old  man  (treated  as  if  one  word)  was  noble.  Wherever  this 

In  business  practice,  however,  the  comma  is  often,  though  not  always,  omitted  before 
and  Company  at  the  end  of  a  firm  name  beginning  with  two  or  more  personal  names. 
EXAMPLES:     Scott,  Foresman  and  Company.     Longmans,  Green,  and  Company. 


PUNCTUATION  117 

sort  of  interpretation  is  proper,  the  comma  (or  commas)  may 
usually  be  omitted. 

Of  course  the  principle  governing  a  series  of  words  applies 
also  to  phrases  and  clauses.  Note  the  following  sentence: 

He  searched  in  vain  through  the  house  in  the  front  yard  and  about 
the  barn. 

Does  this  mean  that  he  searched  in  two  places  or  in  three? 
It  might  mean  either.  Correct  punctuation  of  the  series  will 
dispel  all  doubt. 

1.  He  searched  in  vain  through  the  house,  in  the  front  yard,  and  about 

the  barn.     (Three  places) 

2.  He  searched  in  vain  through  the  house  in  the  front  yard,  and  about 

the  barn.     (Two  places) 

Study  the  following: 

The  prodigal  son  left  his  home  and  his  father  ran  through  his  patrimony 
and  repented  when  there  was  nothing  else  to  do. 

Unless  you  know  the  story,  you  are  likely  to  think  that  the 
father  ran  through  either  his  own  or  his  son's  patrimony  and 
repented;  whereas  the  meaning  really  is  that  the  son  ran 
through  his  own  patrimony  and  repented.  We  have  here  a 
series  of  predicates  for  the  one  subject  son,  and  they  should  be 
separated  by  commas  according  to  the  rule  for  words  and 
phrases  in  a  series,  thus: 

The  prodigal  son  left  his  home  and  his  father,  ran  through  his  patri- 
mony, and  repented  when  there  was  nothing  else  to  do. 

90.  The  Comma  in  Compound  Sentences.  Conjunctions 
are  used  to  join  the  clauses  of  compound  sentences,  but  often 
words  and  phrases  also  are  joined  by  conjunctions.  Thus,  if 
the  punctuation  is  careless,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  tell  whether 
and,  for  instance,  joins  words  or  clauses. 

EXAMPLE  :    Serve  faithfully  your  God  and  your  conscience  will  be  light. 

At  first  glance  serve  seems  to  have  two  objects,  God  and  con- 
science. But  when  you  come  to  will,  you  see  that  you  have 


118  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

misread.  In  other  words,  Cod  and  conscience  belong  in  different 
groups  and  should  be  separated  by  a  comma  in  order  to  avoid 
ambiguity. 

(Correct)    Serve  faithfully  your  God,  and  your  conscience  will  be  light. 

While  not  all  compound  sentences  are  in  danger  of  being 
misunderstood  in  this  way,  it  has  come  to  be  a  very  general 
practice  to  separate  their  clauses  by  commas.  The  practice 
is  perfectly  logical;  we  need  to  indicate  the  point  where  one 
clause  ends  and  another  begins,  almost  as  much  as  we  need 
to  indicate  the  end  of  one  sentence  and  the  beginning  of  an- 
other. Yet  there  are  often  sentences  in  which  the  relation 
between  short  clauses  is  so  close  that  a  comma  would  be  felt  as 
an  intrusion. 

EXAMPLES:    (1)  I  haven't  done  it  and  I  don't  intend  to  do  it.     (One 

attitude  of  mind.) 
(2)  He  pulled  and  I  pushed  the  car.     (Really  one  act.) 

Of  course  if  there  are  more  than  two  clauses  in  a  compound 
sentence  and  a  conjunction  is  expressed  between  only  the  last 
two,  the  clauses  are  treated  exactly  like  words  or  phrases  in 
a  series. 

EXAMPLE:    I  reached  the  ditch,  I  took  one  look  behind,  and  then  I 
made  a  frantic  leap  across. 

In  general  this  section  applies  only  to  compound  sentences 
in  which  conjunctions  are  expressed  and  the  clauses  are  not 
very  long  and  are  not  broken  up  within  themselves  by  commas. 
When  the  clauses  are  not  connected  by  conjunctions,  or  are 
very  long  and  contain  commas,  a  stronger  mark  of  punctua- 
tion is  needed— the  semicolon.  The  uses  of  the  semicolon 
will  be  discussed  in  Sections  97  and  198,  but  one  example  is 
inserted  here  to  make  the  point  of  this  paragraph  clear. 

EXAMPLE:    If  I  had  an  automobile,  I  would  make  a  long  journey;  I 
would  drive  to  California. 


PUNCTUATION  119 

EXERCISE  44 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences  wherever  you  find  punc- 
tuation necessary.     Look  for  possible  different  meanings. 

1.  The  menu  offered  turtle  soup  milk  toast  pineapple  ice  cream  potatoes 

salmon  halibut  steak  and  mushrooms. 

2.  He  put  the  liquid  in  a  dirty  dark  red  bottle. 

3.  They  did  not  undertake  the  work  because  money  was  scarce. 

4.  I  had  oatmeal  coffee  toast  and  ham  and  eggs  for  breakfast. 

5.  He  went  to  the  bank  for  money  was  scarce. 

6.  Day  after  day  I  dropped  the  corn  and  father  covered  it. 

7.  Charles  came  home  from  college  and  Tom  returned  from  the  city. 

8.  Love  rules  the  court  the  camp  the  grove 
And  men  below  and  saints  above; 

For  love  is  heaven  and  heaven  is  love. 

9.  The  rain  fell  without  prophets  to  the  contrary. 

10.  Let  every  American  every  lover  of  liberty  every  well  wisher  to  his 

posterity  swear  by  the  blood  of  the  Revolution  never  to  violate  in 
the  least  particular  the  laws  of  his  country.  — Lincoln 

11.  The  British  soldiers  went  after  Hancock  Adams  and  others. 

12.  We  must  work  for  our  employer  expects  this  task  to  be  finished  by 

noon. 

13.  She  is  the  darling  of  my  heart 

And  she  lives  in  our  alley.  — Henry  Carey 

14.  Men  may  come  and  men  may  go 

But  I  go  on  forever.  — Tennyson 

15.  Her  first  efforts  were  failures:  the  meat  burned  the  eggs  ran  together 

and  she  forgot  entirely  to  put  baking  powder  in  the  biscuits. 

16.  Through  the  heat  of  day  the  chill  of  evening  and  even  into  the  slow 

cold  hours  of  early  morning  she  watched  by  the  cot. 

17.  Trust  when  you  can  but  know  your  man.  — Adage 

18.  I  returned  for  Modestine  pushed  her  briskly  forward  and  after  a  sharp 

ascent  of  twenty  minutes  reached  the  edge  of  the  plateau 

Soon  we  were  on  the  high  road  and  surprise  seized  on  my  mind  as 
I  beheld  a  village  of  some  magnitude  close  at  hand. 

— "Travels  with  a  Donkey,"  Stevenson 

91.  Interruption  of  the  Thought.  A  well  constructed  sen- 
tence has  an  onward  movement  like  the  flow  of  a  river.  Some- 
times, in  a  stream,  we  see  an  eddy  in  the  current,  and  after  a 


120  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

little  the  water  moves  out  again  on  its  way.  The  sentence 
current,  too,  sometimes  stops  to  allow  the  thought  to  wander 
a  little  way  off  the  main  course,  and  after  a  slight  pause  re- 
sumes its  onward  motion.  Such  an  "eddy"  is  generally  marked 
by  commas  before  and  after  it.  There  is  no  such  "eddy"  in 
the  following  compound  sentence;  so,  except  for  the  comma 
between  the  clauses,  it  is  uninterrupted  by  punctuation: 

The  roads  were  sufficiently  dry  by  noon,  and  we  moved  forward  with 
considerable  ease. 

Now  suppose  we  break  the  movement  in  the  first  clause  to  add 
a  bit  of  information,  not  necessary  to  a  complete  idea,  but 
useful  as  explanation  by  the  way.  This  "eddy"  we  set  off  by 
commas,  thus: 

The  roads,  under  the  influence  of  the  July  sun,  were  sufficiently  dry 
by  noon,  etc. 

Next  let  us  put  an  "eddy"  into  the  second  member,  and  like- 
wise set  it  off  by  commas: 

....  and  we  moved  forward,  in  spite  of  our  wagon  difficulties,  with 
considerable  eaae. 

The  complete  sentence  now  reads: 

The  roads,  under  the  influence  of  the  July  sun,  were  sufficiently  dry 
by  noon,  and  we  moved  forward,  in  spite  of  our  wagon  difficul- 
ties, with  considerable  eaae. 

Not  infrequently  the  delay  comes  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sentence;  that  is,  the  flow  of  thought  does  not  really  commence 
until  a  kind  of  preparatory  statement  has  been  made.  A 
comma  usually  follows  such  an  expression. 

EXAMPLE:  In  the  face  of  all  opposition,  he  determined  to  trust  his 
own  judgment. 

Sometimes  a  complete  assertion  has  been  made  before  the 
extra  thought  is  added.  In  such  cases  a  comma  usually  pre- 
cedes the  added  idea. 

EXAMPLE:    We  moved  forward  slowly,  the  roads  being  very  muddy. 


PUNCTUATION  121 

Failure  to  set  off  properly  such  an  added  idea  may  result 
in  ambiguity. 

EXAMPLE  :     Stevenson  was  carried  into  the  house  between  his  wife  and 
his  body  servant  Sosimo  losing  consciousness  at  once. 

At  first  glance  we  might  read,  "Sosimo  losing  consciousness/' 
etc.  Then  we  see  that  Sosimo  must  be  separated  from  losing 
because  the  last  four  words  constitute  an  added  phrase  telling 
something  more  about  Stevenson. 

The  added  thought,  whether  at  the  beginning,  in  the 
middle,  or  at  the  end,  may  consist  of  a  single  word,  a  phrase, 
or  a  clause. 

EXAMPLES: 

(a)  He  turned  around,  however,  and  started  back  (word). 

(b)  I  am  sure,  on  the  contrary,  that  you  are  wrong  (phrase) . 

(c)  The  case,  as  I  see  it,  is  very  plain  (clause) . 

Single  words  such  as  therefore,  nevertheless,  indeed,  perhaps, 
also,  likewise,  too,  are  not  always  set  off  by  commas.  When  the 
connection  is  so  close  and  the  movement  of  the  sentence  so 
smooth  that  there  is  no  natural  pause  in  reading,  any  of  these 
words,  and  others  of  similar  kind,  may  be  inserted  without 
commas. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  I  was  therefore  late  to  the  meeting. 

(2)  What  he  says  is  nevertheless  a  fact. 

(3)  He  was  very  angry  indeed. 

(4)  I  was  perhaps  a  little  hasty. 

(5)  I  also  would  like  to  hear  him. 

Notice  the  difference  between  the  foregoing  examples  and  the 
following  where  commas  are  needed : 

1.  The  truth,  therefore,  is  that  he  was  a  traitor. 

2.  My  contention,  nevertheless,  is  well  founded. 

3.  This,  indeed,  was  a  stronger  position. 

One  type  of  interruption  that  is  often  made  the  basis  of  a 
separate  rule  occurs  when  the  name  of  a  person  or  thing  ad- 
dressed is  inserted.  Such  a  name  is  set  off  by  commas. 

EXAMPLE  :    Tell  me,  John,  what  you  think  of  this. 


122  VOCATIONAL  KN<;LISH 

Possible  ambiguity  resulting  from  a  failure  to  observe  this  rule 
is  very  readily  illustrated.  Note  the  difference  in  meaning 
between  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Strike  John  and  I  will  follow  you. 

2.  Strike,  John,  and  I  will  follow  you. 

92.  Restrictive    and    Non-restrictive    Expressions.     Some- 
times it  is  difficult  to  decide  whether  an  idea  is  really  added — 
is  an  "eddy"  distinct  from  the  main  current  of  the  s< 
or  is  necessary  to  the  meaning.    For  this  reason  some  study 
of  restrictive  and  non-restrictive  modifiers  is  necessary. 

To  restrict  is  to  limit,  or  cut  down.  For  instance,  in  the 
sentence,  "A  dog  took  the  meat,"  we  have  a  general  statement 
that  might  apply  to  any  dog.  But  if  we  add  the  adjective  white, 
giving  us  the  sentence,  "A  white  dog  took  the  meat/'  we  greatly 
limit  the  idea  dog  by  excluding  all  dogs  of  colors  other  than 
white.  A  phrase  or  a  clause,  just  as  truly  as  a  word,  may  limit 
or  restrict  the  word  it  modifies. 

EXAMPLES: 

(a)  The  house  with  the  large  front  yard  is  mine  (phrase). 

(b)  The  house  that  has  the  large  front  yard  is  mine  (clause). 

These  sentences  imply  that,  among  several  houses  that  might 
be  mentioned,  one  particular  house  with  a  large  front  yard  is 
meant.     In  other  words,  they  restrict  the  meaning  of  the  word 
house.     Restrictive  modifiers  are  not  set  off  by  commas. 
Now  examine  the  following  sentence: 

My  uncle's  house,  which  was  built  before  the  Civil  War,  is  still  in  good 
repair. 

This  sentence,  as  punctuated,  does  not  imply  that  my  uncle  has 
several  houses  and  that  the  particular  one  among  them  that  was 
built  before  the  Civil  War  is  in  good  repair.  The  clause  in 
italics,  and  between  commas,  adds  an  interesting  fact  about  my 
uncle's  house — its  age.  Omit  the  inserted  clause  and  the  sen- 
tence is  still  clear,  though  not  so  interesting  or  complete;  but 
omit  the  restrictive  phrase  or  the  restrictive  clause  in  the  pre- 


PUNCTUATION 


123 


ceding  examples — (a)  and  (b) — and  one  immediately  wonders, 
"What  house?"  The  sentence  seems  incomplete  without  the 
restrictive  phrase  or  clause. 

A  non-restrictive  phrase  or  clause,  then,  as  its  name  suggests, 
does  not  restrict  or  limit;  on  the  contrary,  it  adds  to  the  idea 
of  the  word  it  modifies.  And  in  adding  to  the  idea,  the  non- 
restrictive  phrase  or  clause  forms  an  "eddy"  that  needs  to  be 
cut  off  from  the  main  current  by  commas. 

This  very  important  distinction  between  restrictive^  and 
non-restrictive  applies  to  many  kinds  of  phrases  and  clauses. 
We  have  had  examples  of  a  restrictive  adjective  phrase  and  a 
restrictive  and  a  non-restrictive  relative  clause.  Study  also 
the  following  sentences : 

1.  Adjectives  and  adjective  phrases. 

Restrictive  Non-restrictive 

A  damsel  dark  met  me   with   a  The    little    girl,    red    and    angry, 

smile.  frowned  at  me. 


2.  Participles  and  participial 

Restrictive 

The  man  waving  his  hat  is  my 
brother. 
(A  particular  man  is  indicated.) 

3.  Clauses  with  "where." 

Restrictive 

I  found  a  place  where  we  might  rest. 
(A  particular  place.) 

4.  Clauses  with  "when." 

Restrictive 

I  will  come  when  I  please. 
(At  a  particular  time.) 

5.  Clauses  with  "if." 

Restrictive 
I  shall  go  only  if  you  will  go  too. 


phrases. 

Non-restrictive 

My  brother,  waving  his  hat  wildly , 
called  to  me  to  hurry. 


Non-restrictive 

Galena,  where  Grant  was  born,  is  in 
northwestern  Illinois. 
(An  added  detail  about  Galena.) 

Non-restrictive 

At    nine    o'clock,    when    all    was 
quiet,  they  began  their  search. 


Non-restrictive 

//  he  had  done  as  I  suggested,  h« 
would  be  better  off. 


1The    Committee     on    Grammatical    Nomenclature    adopts    the    less    familiar    term 
determinative  in  place  of  restrictive,  and  calls  non-restrictive  clauses  descriptive. 


' 


124  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

6.  Clauses  with' 'because.19 

'  1 1 « t  i ve  Non-restrictive 

I  ran  because  I  was  afraid.  Don't  go,   because  you  might  be 

(For  a  particular  reason.)  injured. 

(Note  that  omission  of  the  com- 
ma would  change  the  meaning.) 

EXERCISE  45 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences  wherever  necessary.    Be 
on  the  lookout  for  double  meanings. 

1.  The  boat  came  down  the  river  having  gone  back  into  its  course. 

2.  The  Italians  pushing  Austria  beyond  captured  Gorizia  are  said  to  be 

duplicating  the  fighting  at  Verdun. 

3.  After  an  early  breakfast  at  Morristown  the  tobacco  peddler  whose 

name  was  Dominicus  Pike  had  traveled  seven  miles  through  a 
solitary  piece  of  woods  without  speaking  a  word  to  anybody  but 
himself  :m«l  his  little  gray  mare.  — Hawthorne 

4.  This  principle  too  we  must  remember. 

5.  Months  before  John  had  come  home  drunk. 

6.  I  ask  you  my  friend  what  you  mean. 

7.  The  watch  however  i  Ls  not  worth  the  money. 

8.  The  watch  however  excellent  it  is  is  not  worth  the  money. 

9.  Quick  as  it  fell  from  the  broken  staff 

Dame  Barbara  snatched  it  up.  — Whiiiier 

10.  Wolfe  on  the  eve  of  the  capture  of  Quebec  is  said  to  have  quoted  from 

Gray's  Elegy,  "The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave." 

11.  Man  made  in  the  image  of  God  should  strive  to  keep  his  body  phys- 

ically and  morally  clean. 

12.  Church  bells  particularly  on  a  silent  Sunday  morning  aroused  within 

him  a  feeling  akin  to  reverence. 

13.  The  drum  at  any  rate  from  its  martial  voice  and  notable  physiological 

effect  nay  even  from  its  cumbrous  and  comical  shape  stands  alone 
among  the  instruments  of  noise.  — Irving 

14.  He  who  hesitates  is  lost. 

15.  The  man  who  needs  an  alarm  clock  seldom  has  the  price. 

16.  He  chooses  moreover  to  do  his  own  thinking  and  certainly  if  you 

accept  his  estimate  of  himself  he  is  capable. 

17.  A  man  who  later  proved  to  be  an  old  friend  stopped  me  at  the  door. 

18.  The  girl  who  later  became  his  wife  stood  laughing  at  him  from  the 

doorway. 

19.  Here  then  is  one  point  at  which  danger  may  be  expected. 


PUNCTUATION  125 

20.  While  the  Saxon  was  plunged  in  these  painful  reflections  the  door  o* 

the  prison  opened.  — Scott 

21.  President  Judson  of  the  University  of  Chicago  introduced  the  speaker. 

22.  Loveliest  of  all  lovely  things  are  they  on  earth  that  soon  pass  away. 

— Bryant 

23.  The    horse  whose    attention  you    can  hold  longest  is  most  easily 

trained. 

24.  The  horse  whose  ability  to  pay  attention  is  relatively  highly  developed 

is  more  .easily  trained  than  most  animals. 

25.  The  boy  leaning  against  the  pier  is  my  brother. 

26.  The  boy  leaning  against  the  pier  unexpectedly  pushed  the  boat  from 

under  his  feet. 

93.  Appositives.  Most  appositives  plainly  interrupt  the 
flow  of  the  sentence  to  add  a  bit  of  explanation,  and  are  for 
that  reason  non-restrictive.  Therefore  the  general  rule  is 
that  appositive  expressions  are  set  off  by  commas. 

EXAMPLE:    Lincoln,  the   emancipator    of  the  slaves,   was   President 
from  1861  to  1865. 

Not  all  appositives,  however,  are  non-restrictive.  Some- 
times an  appositive  is  so  closely  attached  that  it  really  limits 
or  restricts  the  word  with  which  it  belongs,  and  therefore  is 
not  set  off  by  commas.  There  is  a  subtle  difference  in  mean- 
ing between  these  two  sentences : 

(a)  Her  daughter  Mary  was  married  last  week. 

(b)  Her  daughter,  Mary,  was  married  last  week. 

One  of  these  sentences  implies  that  she  has  only  one  daughter; 
the  other  allows  the  inference  that  she  has  more  than  one. 
Which  is  which?  Before  reading  further,  try  to  answer  this 
question. 

Now  examine  sentence  (b)  again.  Try  leaving  out  Mary. 
You  learn  that  some  woman's  daughter  was  married — presum- 
ably her  only  daughter.  The  word  Mary,  being  set  off  by 
commas,  merely  adds  the  girl's  name — a  relatively  unimportant 
matter.  It  is  non-restrictive.  But  in  sentence  (a),  her 
daughter  Mary  excludes  her  daughter  Alice,  and  any  other 
daughter  she  may  have.  That  is,  if  some  one  asked  the 


126  VOCATIONAL  ENOUS 1 1 

question,  "Is  either  of  her  daughters  married?"  the  answer 
would  be,  "Yes,  her  daughter  Mary  is  married. "  Mary  is 
here  almost  an  adject i\<  ;  it  restricts  the  meaning  of  the  word 
daughter  to  her  "Mary  daughter,"  not  her  "Alice  daughter." 
Being  restrictive,  it  is  not  set  off  by  commas. 

When,  then,  an  appositive  has  this  restrictive  relation,  or 
when  a  brief  appositive  is  thought  of  or  spoken  as  part  of 
an  unbroken  phrase  with  the  word  it  explains  (as  in  the  poet 
Tennyson,  I  myself,  etc.),  commas  are  not  needed.  An 
appositive  noun  clause  directly  following  the  word  it  explains 
is  also  not  usually  set  off. 

EXAMPLE:    The  fact  that  I  tros  cold  disturbed  him  very  mm  h. 

In  this  case,  again,  the  restrictive  rule  applies;  the  clause 
clearly  restricts  the  assertion  to  one  particular  fact.  But  the 
general  rule  for  appositives  remains,  that  unless  there  is  some 

PMM!  iv;iM.n  f«>r  MM!  -rttiim  tln-ni  <>ti~.  th.-v  :in-  M-t  <>IY  I  »y  mmma-. 

Study  the  following  sentence  carefully;  it  may  not  mean 
what  you  think  it  does. 

His  wife  did  not  like  asparagus  or  parsnips,  and  he  could  not  eat 
oyster  plant  or  salsify. 

How  many  vegetables  are  named?  Are  you  sure  of  your 
count?  One  of  the  vegetable  names  is  an  appositive;  salsify 
is  another  name  for  oyster  plant.  Therefore  we  shall  have 
to  set  off  salsify — block  it  away  from  the  expression  with  which 
it  is  in  apposition. 

His  wife  did  not  like  asparagus  or  parsnips,  and  he  could  not  eat 
oyster  plant,  or  salsify. 

Can  you  be  sure,  on  the  first  reading,  what  this  sentence 
means? 

All  came  to  see  John  as  well  as  the  others. 

Do  you  find  two  possible  meanings?  Is  John  the  object  of  see, 
or  is  it  in  apposition  with  all,  the  subject  of  came?  In  the 
latter  case,  a  comma  before  John  is  plainly  needed.  Punctuate 


PUNCTUATION  127 

the  sentence  in  this  way  and  there  is  no  possible  doubt  as  to 
the  meaning: 

All  came  to  see,  John  as  well  as  the  others. 

94.  Commas   at    "Both    Ends."     One   general    principle, 
already  stated,  is  so  often  violated,  either  through  careless- 
ness or  through  failure  to  understand  it,  that  it  deserves  the 
emphasis  of  a  special  section.     Every  sort  of  "eddy"  that 
interrupts  the  flow  of  the  sentence,  if  it  is  not  at  the  beginning 
or  the  end,  requires  a  comma  both  before  it  and  after  it.     If  a 
comma  is  required   before  such  an  interpolated   expression, 
whether  it  be  a  word  of  address,  an  appositive,  a  non-restrictive 
phrase  or  clause,  or  any  kind  of  word,  phrase,  or  clause  that 
makes  an  "eddy,"  there  must  also  be  a  comma  after  it.     Viola- 
tion of  this  principle  is  very  careless,  and  may  result  in  ambig- 
uity.    Notice  the  following  examples : 

(Ambiguous)  (Clear) 

(1)  The  officer  prepared  to  do  his          (1)  The  officer,  prepared  to  do  his 

duty,  drew  his  revolver  and  duty,  drew  his  revolver  and 

stepped  forth.  stepped  forth. 

(2)  My  brother,  waving  his  hat          (2)  My  brother,  waving  his  hat 

wildly  called  to  me  to  hurry.  wildly,    called    to    me    to 

hurry.    Or: 

My  brother,  waving  his  hat, 
wildly  called  to  me  to  hurry. 

95.  Avoiding  Ambiguity.     In  certain  emergencies  not  pre- 
cisely covered  by  the  foregoing  sections,  the  comma  may  be 
needed  to  prevent  misunderstanding  or  to  warn  the  eye  not 
to  take  certain  words  together.     Examine  this  sentence: 

Toward  the  rich  men  who  have  dealings  with  them  are  always  servile 
but  ungrateful. 

Do  you  have  a  sensation  of  mild  distraction  as  you  try  to  read 
it?  When  you  get  to  are,  you  see  that  something  is  wrong. 
You  may  read  even  to  the  end  in  search  of  a  subject  for  are; 
then  you  reread — an  exasperating  process.  If  you  are  diligent 
you  may  discover  that  rich  is  not  here  an  adjective  modifying 


US  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

men,  but  the  noun  of  a  phrnsr  < •<  >MMM  ing  of  the  first  three  words. 
In  othet  words,  rich  men  is  not  here  a  word  group,  and  should 
be  divided  because  it  looks  so  much  like  one.  Placing  a 
comma  after  rich  corrects  the  difficulty. 

Toward  the  rich,  m<  n  who  have  dealings  with  them  are  always  servile 
but  ungrateful. 

The  following  sentences  illustrate  similar  emergencies: 

1.  In  I'Ul,  895  cases  were  reported. 

2.  Toward  little  Fred,  Brown  was  almost  tender. 

3.  That  God  is,  is  true. 

4.  Months  before,  we  had  done  it. 

5.  He  went  to  the  bank,  for  money  was  scarce. 

In  some  of  these  cases,  the  expressions  that  are  set  off  can  be 
accounted  for  as  "eddies"  before  or  after  the  main  current 
of  the  sentence;  but  the  chances  of  misunderstanding  are  so 
obvious  that  it  seems  worth  while  to  give  these  as  examples 
of  punctuation  to  avoid  ambiguity. 

96.  Some  Conventional  Uses  of  the  Comma. 

(a)  A  comma  is  used  after  yes  and  no  within  a  sentence, 
and  usually  after  oh   (though  oh  may  be   followed  by  an 
exclamation  mark).    0  is  not  usually  set  off  by  any  mark. 

EXAMPLES:    (1)  Yes,  I  think  I  shall  go. 

(2)  Oh,  how  you  startled  me! 

(3)  Oh!  I  thought  you  had  gone. 

(b)  A  direct  quotation  of  not  more  than  a  sentence  is 
separated  by  a  comma  from  the  words  that  introduce  it. 
If  the  main  sentence  is  resumed  after  the  quotation,  a  comma 
(inside  the  quotation  mark)  follows  the  quoted  words  unless 
the  quotation  requires  some  other  punctuation  mark. 

EXAMPLES  : 

(1)  He  shouted  warningly  to  the  man  at  the  wheel,  "Look  out  for 

the  tug!" 

(2)  I  heard  him  say,  "That  is  all,"  and  then  I  heard  no  more. 

(3)  I  heard  him  ask,  "What  is  the  matter?"  and  then  I  heard  no 

more. 


PUNCTUATION  •  129 

.A  very  short  quotation — a  mere  word  or  phrase  woven 
closely  into  the  structure  of  the  main  sentence — need  not  be 
set  off  by  commas. 

EXAMPLE:    This  is  what  he  called  his  "house  beautiful." 

(c)  A  comma  is  sometimes  used  to  mark  the  omission  of 
words   needed   for   complete   grammatical    construction,   but 
readily  understood  from  what  precedes. 

EXAMPLE:    Fred  chose  New  York;  John,  Chicago. 

There  is  a  decided  tendency,  however,  to  abandon  this  old  and 
often  stated  rule  whenever  there  is  no  obvious  awkwardness 
or  ambiguity  if  the  comma  is  omitted. 

EXAMPLE:    One  boy  chose  wealth,  another  fame,  a  third  friends. 

(d)  A  comma  is  used  in  writing  dates  to  separate  the  name 
pf  the  month,  or  some  other  time  division,  from  the  year;  and 
in  writing  addresses,  to  separate  the  name  of  the  state  or 
country  from  the  name  of  the  town  or  city  (and  in  other  cases 
of  similar  nature). 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  It  was  Christmas,  1917. 

(2)  January  2,  1918. 

(3)  He  lived  in  Bloomington,  Illinois. 

EXERCISE  46 

Punctuate  the  following: 

1.  Ramona  fell  in  love  with  Alessandro  the  sheep-shearer. 

2.  There  was  little  food  for  the  hungry  sick  or  well. 

3.  In  the  cellar  steps  were  heard. 

4.  Attila  the  "Scourge  of  God"  devastated  Europe. 

5.  The  authorities  did  not  prohibit  the  sale  of  opium  or  cocaine. 

6.  The  authorities  did  not  prohibit  the  sale  of  sodium  chloride  or  table 

salt. 

7.  In  honor  of  the  dead  bells  were  tolled  slowly. 

8.  King  of  the  Khyber  Rifles. 

9.  His  brother  Charles  is  ill.     (Two  inferences  possible.) 

10.  In  consideration  of  these  ordinary  contracts  are  preferable. 

11.  Napoleon  the  world's  greatest  strategist  died  at  St.  Helena  an  island 

off  the  coast  of  one  of  our  own  continents  South  America, 


130  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

12.  Our  forefathers  sturdy  and  industrious  founded  a  great  commonweal t  h 

13.  Our  greatest  inventions  the  flying  machine  the  wireless  and  the  electric 

light  are  not  yet  a  generation  old. 

14.  Do  you  want  tea  or  coffee?     (Two  meanings.) 

15.  Blessings  on  thee  little  man 

Barefoot  boy  with  cheek  of  tan.  — WhiUier 

16.  I  will  write  your  friend  Miss  Reed  today. 

17.  "Yes"  I  told  him  "I  feel  that  way  too." 

18.  Uncle  Silas  "lowed"  that  I  was  "keerect"  but  warned  me  "You'd 

better  go  slow  young  man." 

19.  Suppose  your  task  my  little  man 

Is  very  hard  to  get 
Will  it  make  it  any  easier 

For  you  to  sit  and  fret?  — Phoebe  Cory 

USES  OF  THE  SEMICOLON 

97.  In  Compound  Sentences.  The  semicolon  (;)  has  been 
mentioned  (Section  88)  as  a  punctuation  mark  indicating  a 
degree  of  separation  between  word  groups  intermediate  be- 
tween the  slight  degree  indicated  by  the  comma,  and  the 
complete  separation  indicated  by  the  three  marks  that  are 
used  at  the  ends  of  sentences. 

We  have  seen  (Section  90)  that  the  parts  of  a  compound  sen- 
tence, when  a  connective  is  used,  are  frequently  separated  by 
a  comma.  Often,  however,  no  connective  (or  conjunction) 
is  used.  In  such  a  case  the  two  clauses  are  really  two  distinct 
statements  that  might  be  punctuated  as  separate  sentences, 
but  because  of  some  thought  relation  between  them  the  writer 
prefers  to  make  them  a  single  sentence  by  using  a  semicolon. 

EXAMPLE:    He  knows  them  thoroughly;  he  has  spent  months  among 
them. 

When  a  semicolon  is  properly  used  in  such  a  sentence,  it  is 
generally  possible  to  supply  a  connective;  and  if  a  connective 
is  supplied,  the  semicolon  is  usually  replaced  by  a  comma. 

EXAMPLE:    He  knows  them  thoroughly,  for  he  has  spent  months 
among  them. 

We  might  state  this  practice  mathematically  and  our  rule 


PUNCTUATION  131 

would  fit  the  great  majority  of  cases:  One  comma  plus  one 
conjunction  equals  one  semicolon. 

The  student  must  not  get  the  idea,  however,  that  he  can  put 
any  two  clauses  together  and  cement  them  with  a  semicolon. 
A  compound  sentence,  like  any  other  kind  of  sentence,  must  be 
unified;  that  is,  its  parts  must  be  related.  If  they  are  not 
related,  there  is  no  true  sentence. 

EXAMPLE  :    Edwin  Booth  had  a  great  aversion  to  rehearsals;  he  was  a 
relative  of  the  man  who  shot  Lincoln. 

Obviously,  though  both  of  these  statements  are  about  Edwin 
Booth,  the  actor,  they  have  no  such  relation  that  they  can  be 
run  together  with  a  semicolon  as  a  single  sentence. 

One  of  the  most  common  sources  of  error  in  students' 
composition  is  the  notion  that  such  words  as  accordingly,  con- 
sequently, hence,  however,  indeed,  moreover,  nevertheless,  still,  then, 
therefore  *  are  connectives  of  such  a  nature  -that  they  may 
introduce  a  clause  after  a  comma  only.  All  these  words,  when 
introducing  a  second  member  of  a  compound  sentence  without 
some  undoubted  conjunction  such  as  and,  must  be  preceded  by 
a  semicolon;  and  even  the  word  so  (when  equivalent  to  therefore 
or  so  that)  ought  to  be  preceded  by  a  semicolon. 

EXAMPLES  : 

(Incorrect,  (Correct) 

(1)  It  was  very  cold,  consequently  (1)  It  was  very  cold;  consequently 

I  turned  up  my  collar.      .  I  turned  up  my  collar. 

(2)  The  night  was  dark,  neverthe-  (2)  The  night  was  dark;  neverthe- 

less she  was  not  afraid.  less  she  was  not  afraid. 

(3)  I  was  tired,  accordingly  I  sat          (3)  I  was  tired;  accordingly  I  sat 

down.  down. 

(4)  He  heard  her  cry,  then  he  ran   t       (4)  He  heard  her  cry;  then  he  ran 

to  her  aid.  to  her  aid. 

In  sentence  four  above,  the  comma  would  suffice  before  then  if 
he  were  omitted  in  the  second  part;  for  the  second  part  would 
then  be,  not  an  additional  complete  clause  without  a  conjunc- 
tion, but  merely  the  second  part  of  a  compound  predicate. 


'Compare  Section  78. 


132  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

It  should  be  added  that,  though  punctuation  with  the  semi- 
colon, as  in  the  right-hand  column,  corrects  the  errors,  it  K 
often  best  to  rewrite  sentences  of  this  kind  in  such  a  way 
that  they  are  made  complex  instead  of  compound,  because 
it  is  possible  to  express  the  true  relations  between  the  parts 
more  accurately  and  gracefully  in  complex  sentences.  Thus 
the  following  versions  are  better  than  the  corresponding  sen- 
tences in  the  right-hand  colurtm  on  page  131. 

1.  It  was  so  cold  that  I  turned  up  my  collar. 

2.  Though  the  night  was  dark,  she  was  not  afraid. 

3.  I  was  so  tired  that  I  sat  down  to  rest. 

98.  Between  Word  Groups  Broken  by  Commas.  Often  a 
sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  main  parts  which  are  them- 
selves broken  up  into  smaller  parts  by  commas.  In  such  a 
case  it  is  obviously  desirable  to  distinguish  between  the  smaller 
word  groups  and  the  larger  ones;  and  the  semicolon,  as  the 
mark  intermediate  between  the  comma  and  the  freriod,  is 
used  to  set  apart  the  larger  groups.  In  other  words,  a  series 
of  phrases  or  clauses  of  any  kind  are  usually  separated  by 
semicolons  if  any  of  the  members  must  be  broken  up  by  commas. 

EXAMPLE:  If  I  could  save  the  Union  without  freeing  any  slave,  I 
would  do  it;  and  if  I  could  save  it  by  freeing  all  the  slaves,  I  would 
do  it;  and  if  I  could  save  it  by  freeing  some  and  leaving  others  alone, 
I  would  also  do  that.  — Lincoln 

The  same  principle  is  at  the  basis  of  the  rule,  frequently 
given,  that  e.  g.,  i.  e.,  namely,  and  viz.,  before  a  list,  are  usually 
preceded  by  a  semicolon.  The  words  after  such  a  semicolon 
are  separated  by  commas. 

EXAMPLE:  I  have  three  reasons  for  not  going;  namely,  lack  of  funds, 
poor  health,  and  important  work. 

EXERCISE  47 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences: 

1.  We  are  not  slow  in  our  shipments  on  the  contrary  we  are  unusually 

prompt. 

2.  The  day  is  cold  and  dark  and  dreary 

It  rains  and  the  wind  is  never  weary.  — Longfellow 


PUNCTUATION  133 

3.  He  knew  the  worst  would  happen  he  tried  to  meet  it  bravely. 

4.  He  knew  the  worst  would  happen  and  he  tried  to  meet  it  bravely. 

5.  He  had  fled  as  far  as  he  could  go  accordingly  he  tried  to  build  up  his 

courage  to  face  the  other  way. 

6.  He  knew  he  should  not  take  the  money  nevertheless  when  he  found  the 

roll  in  his  pocket  he  lacked  the  courage  to  return  it. 

7.  He  thought  of  what  his  mother  would  say  then  there  was  another  who 

might  not  understand. 

8.  He  reasoned  that  he  ought  not  to  take  a  chance  still  men  had  risked 

all  and  won. 

9.  The  moral  side  did  not  impress  Tom  indeed  it  may  be  questioned 

whether  morals  ever  concerned  him. 

10.  He  had  lost  his  reputation  anyway  so  what  was  the  difference? 

11.  No  men  living  are  more  worthy  to  be  trusted  than  those  who  toil  up 

from  poverty  none  less  inclined  to  take  or  touch  aught  which  they 
have  not  earned.  — Lincoln 

12.  He  hoped  to  join  Miller  at  South  Bend  there  would  be  sufficient  time. 

13.  He  thought  the  case  over  between  trains  "Will  it  pay?"  he  asked 

himself. 

14.  With  malice  toward  none  with  charity  for  all  with  firmness  in  the  right 

as  God  gives  us  to  see  the  right  let  us  strive  to  finish  the  work  we  are 
in  to  bind  up  the  nation's  wounds  to  care  for  him  who  shall  have 
borne  the  battle  and  for  his  widow  and  his  orphan — to  do  all  which 
may  achieve  and  cherish  a  just  and  lasting  peace  among  ourselves 
and  with  all  nations.  — Lincoln 


USES  OF  THE  COLON 

99.  The   Colon.     The  colon    (:)   was  formerly  used  as  a 
mark  intermediate  between  the  semicolon  and  the  period. 

EXAMPLE:  It  is  sown  in  dishonor;  it  is  raised  in  glory:  it  is  sown  in 
weakness;  it  is  raised  in  power.  I  Corinthians,  15:43 

Here  we  have  a  series  of  four  clauses  without  any  conjunctions. 
The  second  clause  is  clearly  more  closely  related  to  the  first 
than  it  is  to  the  third;  that  is,  the  first  two  clauses  make  up  a 
balanced  pair  and  the  third  and  fourth  a  similarly  balanced 
pair.  The  colon  separates  the  pairs.  Such  use  of  the 
colon,  however,  is  generally  abandoned  at  present.  The 
practice  would  now  be  to  use  either  commas  and  a  semicolon, 
or  semicolons  and  a  period. 


134  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

The  main  uses  of  the  colon  at  present  are:  (a)  to  precede  a 
list  of  particulars  that  is  formally  introduced;  (b)  to  precede 
an  extract  or  quotation  of  considerable  length;  and  (c)  some- 
times to  precede  an  illustration  or  an  explanation  of  a  com- 
plete statement  that  has  been  given. 

EXAMPLES  : 

(a)  He  took  with  him  the  following  articles:  a  camera,  a  telescope, 

and  two  rifles.  (Notice  that  the  colon  is  not  needed  if  the 
list  is  introduced  less  formally;  e.  g.,  He  took  with  him  a 
camera,  a  telescope,  and  two  rifles.) 

(b)  The  Reverend  Mr.  Smith  said :  (Then  follows  a  long  quotation.) 

(c)  His  tongue,  indeed,  was  a  magic  instrument:  sometimes  it 

rumbled  like  the  thunder;  sometimes  it  warbled  like  the 
sweetest  music.  (Notice  that  the  last  two  clauses  develop 
or  explain  the  first  %>ne.) 

Examine  the  following  sentence  carefully : 

Our  young  men  in  the  cities  are  living  too  rapidly:  at  fifteen,  when 
they  should  be  abashed  before  girls,  they  are  social  lions;  at  twenty, 
when  they  should  yet  believe  in  the  rewards  of  virtue,  they  have 
adopted  the  theory  of  success  by  "pull";  at  thirty  they  are  pre- 
maturely cynical. 

Notice  that  we  have  four  main  clauses,  but  they  are  not  of 
equal  value.  The  last  three  are  given  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
plaining and  illustrating  the  first  one.  A  colon  follows  the 
first  clause;  semicolons  separate  the  others.  The  relation  of 
the  first  clause  to  the  other  three  is  very  much  like  that  of  a 
father  to  his  three  sons. 

The  colon  has  also  various  purely  conventional  uses,  of 
which  the  most  important  are  as  follows: 

1.  After  the  salutation  in  a  letter. 

EXAMPLE  :    Dear  Sir : 

2.  Between  chapter  and  verse  in  Scripture  references. 
EXAMPLE  :    Matt.  4 :  8-16. 

3.  In  indicating  time. 
EXAMPLE:    4:35  p.m. 


PUNCTUATION  135 

EXERCISE  48 

Punctuate  the  following: 

1.  The  spirit  of  the  American  people  is  little  understood  abroad  Europeans 

generally  believe  that  we  put  the  dollar  above  morals  and  happiness 
or  even  mercy  they  believe  that  American  demeanor  while  brilliant 
in  ingenuity  is  uncomfortably  tricky. 

2.  .The  lawyer  lectured  on  the  following  topics  transfer  of  interests  in  lands 

contracts  of  sale  conveyances  wills  descent  to  heirs  landlord  and  tenant 
the  lease  defects  and  repairs  subletting  rent  remedies  for  non-payment 
termination  of  the  lease. 

3.  There  are  three  simple  tenses  present  past  and  future  in  English. 

4.  Kindly  send  us  the  following  goods  tliree  copies  of  Lamb's  Tales  from 

Shakspere  twelve  copies  of  Ivanhoe  one  copy  of  Silas  Marner. 

5.  Alphabets  ancient  Egyptian  early  Phoenician  Greek  Chinese  English. 

6.  Matthew  68.     7  30  a.m.     My  dear  Jones 


USES  OF  THE  DASH 

100.  For  Sudden  Breaks  or  Interruptions.  We  have  seen 
(Section  91)  how  slight  interruptions  of  the  forward  movement 
of  the  sentence  are  marked  by  commas.  Sometimes  there  are 
interruptions  that  cannot  be  called  "slight/'  but  which  turn 
the  current  of  the  sentence  sharply  away  from  its  former 
direction.  For  sudden  breaks  of  this  kind,  as  well  as  a.  few 
other  uses  to  be  discussed  in  the  next  section,  the  dash  ( — )  has 
been  adopted  as  a  useful  mark.  Proper  uses  of  the  dash  may 
best  be  indicated  by  examples. 

(a).  Abrupt  change  in  construction,  leaving  the  first  part 
of  the  sentence  incomplete. 

EXAMPLE:     I  want  to  tell  you — but  that  wouldn't  be  fair. 

(b)  A  break  for  the  purpose  of  repeating  or  varying  an 
expression  for  emphasis. 

EXAMPLES  :     We  are  tired — yes,  more  than  tired  of  your  delay. 

Do  we — can  we — hope  to  succeed  in  such  an  undertaking? 

(c)  An  unexpected  turn  of  thought. 

EXAMPLE  :     He  was  always  anxious  to  pay  his  debts — when  he  had  no 
money. 


136  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

The  dash  is  also  very  much  used  to  set  off  parenthetical 
expressions  that  are  independent,  both  grammatically  and  in 
idea,  of  the  main  assertion;  in  other  words,  expressions  that  are 
decidedly  more  than  "-liirht"  int.  nuptimis  of  the  course  of  the 
sentence. 

EXAMPLE:    I  wanted  to  tell  you — but  I  must  not  detain  you  long- 
that  I  appreciate  your  careful  work. 

In  such  sentences  either  dashes  or  marks  of  parenthesis  ()  may 
be  used,  but  dashes  seem  less  formal  and  are  now  often  pre- 
ferred to  parent  1 H -r<. 

101.  Other  Uses  of  the  Dash.  The  dash  is  a  convenient 
mark  to  set  off  a  series  of  appositives  that  have  to  be  separated 
from  one  another  by  commas.  If  commas  were  used  to  set  off 
the  whole  series,  as  well  as  betwt  <  n  the  items  of  the  series,  it 
misfit  be  difficult  to  distinguish  the  relations.  Examine  the 
following  sentence: 

He  sold  photographic  chemicals,  sulphite  of  soda,  metol,  and  potassium 
bromide. 

Just  how  many  things  did  he  sell?  You  will  want  to  know 
immediately  whether  the  last  three  items  in  the  list  are,  or  are 
not,  photographic  chemicals.  If  they  are  photographic  chemi- 
cals, the  fact  should  be  made  clear  by  a  dash,  instead  of  a 
comma,  after  chemicals.  If  they  are  not  photographic  chemi- 
cals, the  comma  is  sufficient.  Examine  also  the  following 
examples  of  this  use  of  the  dash:1 

(1)  He  had  to  buy  three  books — a  geography,  a  history,  and  a  grammar. 

(2)  Ringling  Brothers  displayed  various  animals  of  North  America — 

buffaloes,  mountain  lions,  panthers,  lynxes,  and  antelopes. 

Occasionally  a  single  appositive  may  be  set  off  by  a  dash 
(or  dashes)  instead  of  a  comma  or  commas,  when  there  is  a 
feeling  of  unusual  abruptness  in  turning  to  the  explanation. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  He  gave  it  to  the  boss — Murphy. 

(2)  Efficiency — that    much    overworked   word — is  now 
heard  even  in  our  churches. 


'These  are  cases  in  which  colons  might  also  be  used,  according  to  Section  99. 


PUNCTUATION  137 

In  a  long  sentence  beginning  with  a  series  of  phrases  or 
clauses  and  ending  with  a  summarizing  statement,  a  dash  is 
often  used  before  the  summarizing  statement.  The  dash  in  this 
use  is  comparable  to  the  line  one  draws  under  a  column  of 
figures  preparatory  to  writing  down  the  sum. 

EXAMPLE:  That  he  might  enjoy  health,  that  he  should  have  enough 
money  for  the  necessities  of  life,  that  he  might  enjoy  friends — these 
were  the  life  desires  of  Stevenson. 

A  similar  use  may  occur  even  in  a  short  sentence. 

EXAMPLE:     Money,  position,  reputation — all  seemed  worthless  now. 

There  are  also  various  mechanical  uses  of  the  dash  which 
may  be  illustrated  as  follows: 

1.  My  friend  B — 

2.  "The  rank  is  but  the  guinea's  stamp." — Burns 

3.  During  the  years  1914-18. 

4.  pp.  28-30. 

5.  May-July.  % 

Notice  that  in  3,  4,  and  5  a  shorter  mark,  called  technically 
the  en-dash,  is  used;  the  longer  mark  of  1  and  2  is  the  em- 
dash  and  is  the  one  used  ordinarily  in  sentences. 

One  caution  as  to  the  dash  is  important.  It  used  to  be 
regarded  as  a  rather  extreme  and  sensational  mark  of  punctua- 
tion, because  of  the  abruptness  or  suddenness  that  it  implied, 
and  careful  writers  used  it  sparingly.  It  has,  however,  grown 
in  favor,  and  there  is  now  no  objection  to  it  where  it  really  serves 
any  of  the  purposes  that  have  explained  in  this  and  the  pre- 
ceding section.  But  the  dash  is  not  an  indiscriminate  substitute 
for  the  comma,  the  semicolon,  or  the  colon,  to  be  used  because 
one  is  not  sure  exactly  which  of  these  other  marks  would  be 
best ;  it  is  a  mark  with  distinctive  characteristics  of  its  own,  and 
the  chief  thing  to  remember  about  it  is  that  it  usually  indicates 
an  abrupt  or  sudden  turn  of  some  kind,  in  thought  or  construc- 
tion. 


138  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Typewriters  are  not  often  equipped  with  both  a  hyphen  and 
a  dash;  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  same  character  for  these  very 
different  marks.  In  such  a  case  stenographers  should  be  care- 
ful to  distinguish  in  some  clear  Avay.  The  hyphen,  used  between 
the  parts  of  some  compound  words  and  at  the  end  of  the  line 
when  it  is  necessary  to  divide  a  word,  should  not  be  separated 
by  any  space  from  the  preceding  or  following  letters.  But 
when  the  hyphen  sign  on  a  typewriter  is  to  be  interpreted  as  a 
dash,  it  must  be  separated  from  adjacent  words  by  space  both 
before  and  after  it;  or  it  may  be  struck  twice  to  make  it  evident 
that  a  dash  is  meant. 


EXERCISE  40 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences: 

1.  The  business  of  the  administration  should  be  in  the  hands  of  adminis- 

trative   officers    superintrndnit    assistant    superintendents    and 
principals. 

2.  I  was  not  a  fellow-being  of  these  explorers  I  was  a  curiosity  I  was  a 

specimen.  — Lowell 

3.  These  discoveries  gunpowder  and  the  compass  opened  a  new  world 

to  a  new  idea  democracy. 

4.  If  the  president  refuse  which  God  forbid  we  shall  be  lost. 

5.  "I  thought  you  came  from  Oxford,"  I  returned.     "Not  I"  said  Steer- 

forth  "I  have  been  seafaring  better  employed." 

—"David  Copperfield,"  Dickens 

6.  I  was  going  by  Tom's  yesterday  when  but  that's  another  story. 

7.  They  are  good  they  are  bad  they  are  weak  they  are  strong 

Wise  foolish  so  am  I.  — Sam  Walter  Foss 

8 Say  not  Good  Night  but  in  some  brighter  clime 

Bid  me  Good  Morning.  — Anna  L.  Barbauld 

9.  You  will  sell  this  toy  the  kind  the  children  cry  for  Structo. 

10.  It  has  the  Rotex  shutter  that's  all  you  need  to  know. 

11.  He  was  always  looking  for  work  for  his  wife.     (How  does  a  dash 

after  work  affect  the  meaning?) 

102.  Classification  by  Punctuation.  The  four  internal  marks 
of  punctuation  that  we  have  been  discussing — comma,  semi- 
colon, colon,  and  dash — can  be  used  very  effectively  to  show  a 


PUNCTUATION  139 

systematic  arrangement  of  topics.     Doubtless  the  following 
systems  of  classification  are  familiar  to  students: 

[corn  (2)  Products  of  Illinois 

cereal      <  wheat  (a)  cereal 

[oats  1.  corn 

2.  wheat 

3.  oats 


Products 
(1)       of 
Illinois 


[coal  /UN      .        , 

,  (b)  mineral 

mineral  < 


lead 


1.  coal 


2.  lead 
(c)  dairy 

(milk  1.  milk 

dairy      <  butter  2.  butter 

[cheese  3.  cheese 

Sometimes  it  is  not  convenient  to  take  the  space  required  by 
such  tabulation.  In  such  a  case  the  relations  may  be  indicated 
almost  as  effectively  by  punctuation  as  follows: 

(3)  Products  of   Illinois:  cereal — corn,   wheat,   oats;   mineral — coal, 
lead;  dairy — milk,  butter,  cheese. 

It  is  worth  while  to  study  this  arrangement  carefully  and 
note  the  uses  that  are  illustrated.  The  colon  after  Illinois  is  a 
colon  preceding  a  list.  The  dashes  after  cereal,  mineral,  and 
dairy  are  dashes  preceding  groups  of  appositives,  or  subordinate 
lists.  Colons  in  place  of  the  dashes  would  be  confusing  because 
of  the  colon  preceding  the  main  list.  The  commas  separate 
words  in  a  series.  The  semicolons  separate  groups  of  words 
that  are  subdivided  by  commas. 

USES  OF  PARENTHESES 

103.  For  Parenthetical  Expressions.  The  parenthetical  ex- 
pression is  a  kind  of  aside  in  writing,  a  statement  not  directly 
in  the  current  of  thought. 

EXAMPLE:     That  fall  Jeremiah  Courtney  (he  has  since  died)  enter- 
tained all  the  country-side. 

Parenthetical  expressions  are  often  enclosed  by  dashes 
(Section  100)  or  by  commas  (Section  91).  Such  use  of  commas 


140  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

is  mainly  confined  to  short  expressions  not  far  out  of  the  course 
of  thought.  The  choice  between  dashes  and  parentheses  for 
longer  and  more  marked  interruptions  is  largely  a  matter  of 
personal  taste.  Appositives  and  other  bits  of  explanation  are 
frequently  set  off  by  parentheses,  as  for  example  the  references 
to  sections  in  this  book.  Note  also  the  following  uses: 

(1)  In  one  of  your  letters  (May  24,  1911)  you  state  .... 

(2)  The  Tussock  larva  (caterpillar)  is  about  an  inch  and  a  ha)- 

long. 

(3)  The  rifle  (the  one  father  told  you  about  last  night)  has  been 

in  our  family  for  a  hundred  years. 

Parentheses  are  also  used  to  enclose  figures  or  letters  in  an 
enumeration  of  items  run  into  a  text. 

EXAMPLE:    There  are  two  main  reasons  for  this  condition:     (a)  his 
poverty,  (b)  his  youth. 

Note  that  no  other  mark  of  punctuation  follows  the  enclosed 
letter  or  figure. 

Pupils  are  sometimes  told  to  enclose  in  parentheses  words 
that  they  wish  to  cancel.  This  is  an  entirely  wrong  practi«  . 
however,  and  likely  to  mislead  the  reader.  Parentheses  have 
no  canceling  power. 

USES  OF  BRACKETS 

104.  Used  Mainly  in  Printing.  Brackets  which  are  right- 
angled  []  as  distinguished  from  the  curved  parentheses,  are 
not  common  except  in  technical  work,  and  are  more  likely  to 
be  seen  in  printing  than  in  writing.  The  main  uses  of  brackets 
are  as  follows: 

(1)  To  enclose  an  explanation  or  note,  as  by  an  editor. 

(2)  To  set  off  words  inserted  in  a  quotation  for  the  purpose 
of  explaining  something  that  is  not  clear  from  the  quotation 
alone,  or  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  an  error. 

(3)  To  enclose  a  parenthesis  within  a  parenthesis.     For  this 
purpose,  however,  parentheses  within  dashes  may  also  be  used. 


PUNCTUATION  141 

i 

Such  an  involved  construction  is  awkward  and  should  generally 
be  avoided. 

EXAMPLES: 

(1)  "I  was  assisted  in  my  work  by  Frederick  Aiken,  whose  service 

was  very  much  appreciated."  [Mr.  Aiken  represented 
The  Sun  in  Mexico  during  the  occupation  of  Vera  Cruz. 
—The  Editor.} 

(2)  "He  [the  President]  asserted  that  such  action  was  [un]neces- 

sary." 

Brackets  are  like  parentheses  in  having  no  canceling  power. 

USES  OF  QUOTATION  MARKS 

105.  Direct  Quotation.  When  the  exact  words  of  a  charac- 
ter in  a  story,  or  of  any  person  other  than  the  writer  of  the 
particular  composition  in  hand,  are  run  into  the  text,  they 
should  begin  and  end  with  quotation  marks  ("  "). 

EXAMPLES  :  i 

(1)  "Do  you  expect  me  to  go  alone?"  she  said  to  Maloney. 

(2)  We  must  agree  with  the  immortal  words  of  Keats,  "A  thing 

of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever." 

If  a  direct  quotation  continues  through  more  than  one 
paragraph,  it  is  customary  to  place  a  quotation  mark  at  the 
beginning  of  each  paragraph,  so  that  the  eye  will  the  more 
readily  recognize  that  the  quotation  continues;  but  the  quota- 
tion mark  for  the  end  does  not  occur  until  the  whole  quotation 
ends. 

Notice  that  the  abbreviation  etc.,  to  indicate  that  only  part 
of  a  passage  is  quoted,  belongs  outside  the  quotation  marks. 

(Incorrect]  .  (Correct) 

He  quoted  the  familiar  proverb,  He  quoted  the  familiar  proverb, 

"A  rolling  stone,  etc."  "A  rolling  stone,"  etc. 

Direct  quotation  should  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
indirect  quotation.  Indirect  quotation  merely  states  the  sub- 
stance of  a  speaker's  or  writer's  remark,  without  giving  his 
exact  words,  and  is  not  enclosed  in  quotation  marks.  Thus  the 


142  VOCATIONAL  ENOUSB 

* 

first  example  in  this  section  may  be  changed  to  indirect  quota- 
tion as  follows: 

She  asked  Maloney  if  he  expected  her  to  go  alone. 

A  quotation  within  a  quotation  is  usually  indicated  by 
single  marks  ('  ')•  If  still  another  quotation  occurs  within 
the  inner  quotation,  the  double  marks  are  used  again.  Cases 
like  this  last  are  rare  and  awkward,  but  the  single  marks  for 
quotation  within  quotation  are  common. 

EXAMPLE  :  The  speaker  continued :  "Buras's  poetry  is  as  applicable 
today  as  it  was  a  century  ago.  'A  man's  a  man  for  a1  that' 
preaches  the  always  needed  gospel  of  democracy." 

In  printing,  an  extract  that  is  set  off  by  itself  in  different 
type  from  that  of  the  body  of  the  text  is  usually  not  put  in 
quotation  marks.  This  book  contains  many  examples  of  this 
practice. 

106.  Other  Uses  of  Quotation  Marks*  Among  various 
special  uses  of  quotation  marks  the  following  are  worth 
illustration: 

(a)  To  enclose  titles  of  books,  articles,  poems,  pictures  and 

other  works  of  art. 

/ 
EXAMPLES:    (1)  Dickens's  "A  Tale  of  Two  Cities." 

(2)  Hall's  article  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly  on  "Kitch- 

ener's Mob." 

(3)  Keats's  "Ode  to  a  Nightingale." 

(4)  Rubens's  "Descent  from  the  Cross." 

In  printed  matter,  however,  the  titles  of  books  often  occur  in 
italics,  unquoted;  and  therefore  in  manuscript  they  may  be 
underlined  and  unquoted.  Notice  that  the  authors'  or  artists' 
names  are  not  part  of  the  quotation. 

Students  are  often  careless  in  failing  to  put  within  the 
quotation  an  article  that  belongs  at  the  beginning — e.  g.,  the 
A  at  the  beginning  of  "A  Tale  of  Two  Cities"  in  example  (1) 
above.  Anything  that  is  quoted  at  all  should  be  quoted 
accurately. 


PUNCTUATION  143 

(b)  Unusual  expressions  of  such  a  character  that  the  writer 
wishes  to  indicate  his  recognition  of  the  fact  that  they  do  not 
belong  to  the  .standard  English  vocabulary  are  put  in  quota- 
tion marks.     Slang,   technical  words,   words  used   ironically 
or  in  some  special  sense,  are  included  in  this  class. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  His  clothes  were  somewhat  "ratty." 
(2)  He  was  elected  "master  of  the  rolls." 

(c)  Names  of  ships,  trains,  etc.,  are  often  quoted;  or  they 
may  be  printed  in  italics. 

EXAMPLES:    The  "Oriental  Limited"    makes  connection  with  "The 

Empress  of  Japan"  at  Seattle. 

The  Oriental  Limited  makes  connection  with  The  Empress 
of  Japan  at  Seattle. 

(d)  Words   or   phrases   to   which   particular   attention   is 
directed,  as  for  the  purpose  of  definition  or  because  they  are 
spoken  of  as  words  merely,  may  be  either  quoted  or  printed  in 
italics  (as  often  in  this  book). 

EXAMPLES:     The  word  "sanguine"  is  related  to  "sanguinary,"  but 

differs  much  from  it  in  meaning. 

The  word  sanguine  is  related  to  sanguinary,  but  differs 
much  from  it  in  meaning. 

There  is  some  reason  for  holding  to  the  use  of  quotation 
marks  for  what  is  actually  quoted,  and  using  italics  mainly  for 
emphasis. 

107.  Other  Marks  in  Connection  with  Quotations.  The 
position  of  other  punctuation  marks  in  relation  to  the  quota- 
tion marks  at  the  end  of  quotations  often  causes  trouble,  but 
can  be  simplified  under  two  general  rules: 

(a)  A  period,  or  a  comma,  always  precedes  the  quotation 
mark  at  the  end  of  a  quotation. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  "Ah,  Agnes,"  I  said,  "I  have  always  known  it." 
(2)  "I  cannot,"  he  said,  "go  this  month." 

This  rule  is  probably  due  largely  to  considerations  of  appear- 
ance. 


144  VOCATIONAL  I  NCIJSH 

(b)  Other  marks — semicolon,  colon,  exclamation  mark, 
question  mark,  dash,  etc. — go  outside  the  quotation  unless  they 
plainly  belong  to  the  quoted  words. 

EXAMPLES: 

(1)  The  following  instruction  is  given  under  the  head  of  "Business 

Correspondent  :  \\\n>\\  a  firm  is  the  addressee,  the  salu- 
tatory phrase  should  be  "<H-ntlrim-n:"  or  "Dear  Sirs:" 
—"A  Manual  for  Writers,"  Manly  and  PowtU 

(2)  "Good!"  he  cried. 

(3)  Do  you  know  the  name  of  the  author  of  "The  Solitary 

Reaper"? 

USES  OF  THE  PERIOD 

108.  Special  Uses.  The  ordinary  use  of  the  period  at  the 
end  of  declarative  and  imperative  sentences  has  been  mentioned 
(Section  86)  as  being  too  well  known  to  require  special  attention. 

(a)  A  period  is  also  used  after  all  abbreviations. 
EXAMPLES:    Mr.    etc.    e.g.    pp.    A.D. 

Formerly  a  period  was  used  after  Roman  numerals,  but  this 
practice  is  now  generally  abandoned. 

EXAMPLES:    Vol.  IV    When  Charles  II  was  King  of  England 

(b)  A  row  of  dots  or  periods,  technically  called  ellipses, 
indicates  omission  of  a  portion  of  a  quotation  that  is  not  essen- 
tial to  one's  purpose  in  quoting.     In  a  prose  passage  four  dots 
are  most  commonly  used,  but  when  a  whole  line  or  more  is 
omitted  from  a  poetical  quotation  a  line  of  dots  is  usually  made. 

EXAMPLES:    "In  the  height  of  his  good  humor  ....  he  found  his 
pocket  was  picked."  — Addison 

"Breathes  there  the  man,  with  soul  so  dead, 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said, 
This  is  my  own,  my  native  land!  ' 


If  such  there  breathe,  go,  mark  him  well."  — Scott 

USES  OF  THE  EXCLAMATION  MARK 

109.  The  Exclamation  Mark  (!)  is  used  after  exclamatory 
sentences;  after  imperative  sentences  by  which  it  is  intended  to 


PUNCTUATION  145 

express  a  particularly  strong  or  urgent  command;  often  after 
interjections;  and  sometimes  to  indicate  irony. 

EXAMPLES:     (1)  What  a  piece  of  work  is  a  man!  — Shakspere 

(2)  Hurry !  hurry !  hurry ! 

(3)  Alas!  I  found  that  he  was  gone. 

(4)  Brutus  is  an  honorable  'man !  — Shakspere 

USES  OF  THE  QUESTION  MARK 

110.  The  Question  Mark  has  only  two  common  uses: 

(a)  At  the  end  of  a  direct  question  (but  not  an  indirect 
question). 

EXAMPLES  : 

(Question  mark)  (No  question  mark) 

(1)  Are  you  angry?  (1)  He  asked  me  whether  I  was 

angry. 

(2)  Where  does  your  brother  live?  (2)  He  asked  me  where  my  brother 

lives. 

(b)  To  express  a  doubt. 

EXAMPLE:     He  says  he  is  a  member  of  a  noble  (?)  English  family. 
This  use  is  rare  and  generally  undesirable. 

EXERCISE  5O 

Punctuate  the  following  wherever  necessary. 

1.  Through  the  influence  of  his  father  he  got  the  job. 

2.  The  army  moved  forward  rapidly  having  previously  mapped  the 

country. 

3.  The  army  moved  forward  rapidly  over  a  previously  mapped  country. 
(NOTE. — No.  2  will  require  a  comma.     No.  3  will  not.     In  No.  2  the 

participial  phrase  is  equivalent  to  a  clause;  i.  e.,  the  sentence,  while 
it  must  be  called  simple,  is  in  effect  complex,  being  almost  equiva- 
lent to  the  complex  sentence,  "The  army  moved  forward  rapidly, 
for  the  country  had  been  previously  mapped.") 

4.  That  that  is  is  that  that  is  not  is  not. 

5.  Every  one  loved  Agnes  for  she  had  the  rare  virtue  of  loving  every  one. 

6.  Every  one  loved  Agnes  she  had  a  way  of  friendship  with  acquaintance 

and  stranger  rich  and  poor. 

7.  Take  care  of  the  minutes  and  the  hours  will  care  for  themselves. 

8.  In  some  instances  the  tiger  came  out  of  one  door  in  others  out  of  the 

other.     (Look  out  for  clauses  with  "understood"  words.) 

9.  All  passengers  buying  tickets  before  April  1  will  benefit  by  the  rates. 


146  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

10.  The  man  who  makes  no  mistakes  never  makes  anything  else. 

11.  The  clerk  who  was  late  always  had  to  pay  a  fine. 

12.  The  clerk  who  was  late  explained  that  a  wreck  had  delayed  her  car. 

13.  Intelligent  care  should  be  given  children  who  have  bad  colds  most 

diseases  start  that  way. 

14.  (a)  Mr.  Jones  of  Buffalo  is  visiting  here  this  week. 

(b)  Mr.  Jones  of  Buffalo  [not  the  Detroit  man]  is  visiting  here  this 
week. 

15.  Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton  wrote  our  Revolutionary  patriot  in 

reply  to  the  statement  that  since  there  were  other  Charles  Carrolls 
the  king  would  not  know  which  to  hang. 

16.  There  are  several  primary  requirements  for  a  military  officer  first  he 

must  be  a  man  of  commanding  appearance  second  he  must  under- 
stand the  wonts  of  men  third  he  must  be  well  educated. 

17.  In  your  letter  June  16  you  ask  a  for  information  b  for  instruction. 

Have  you  our  new  instruction  sheet  Bulletin  No.  3?    You  will  find 
instruction  therein  enough  to  keep  you  busy  a  week. 

18.  How  can  he  expect  me  to  bring  the  books  he  asked  Harry  when  I 

can't  even  get  into  the  house. 

19.  Woman  without  her  man  would  be  a  savage. 

20.  The  schoolmaster  says  the  mayor  is  a  donkey. 

21.  A  horse  a  horse  my  kingdom  for  a  horse.  — Richard  III 

22.  But  she  is  in  her  grave  and  oh 

The  difference  to  me.  — Wordsworth 

23.  How  are  the  mighty  fallen .  — //  Samuel 

EXERCISE  51 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences: 

1.  The  voices  of  the  Present  say  come 

But  the  voices  of  the  Past  say  wait  — Longfellow 

2.  Quoth  David  to  Daniel  Why  is  it  these  scholars 

Abuse  one  another  whenever  they  speak 
Quoth  Daniel  to  David  It  naturally  follers 

Folks  come  to  hard  words  if  they  meddle  with  Greek          — Saxe 

3.  One  reason  why  I'm  now  so  scared 

Pardon  the  weakness  pray 
Is  that  I'm  thinking  all  the  while 
Of  me  what  will  they  say 

4.  O  earth  so  full  of  dreary  noises 

O  men  with  wailing  in  your  voices 

O  delved  gold  the  wallers  heap 
O  strife  O  curse  that  o'er  it  fall 
God  strikes  a  silence  through  you  all 

And  giveth  His  beloved  sleep  —Mrs.  Browning 


PUNCTUATION  147 

5.  At  this  critical  moment  a  fresh  comely  woman  pressed  through  the 
throng  to  get  a  peep  at  the  gray  bearded  man.  She  had  a  chubby 
child  in  her  arms  which  frightened  at  his  looks  began  to  cry.  Hush 
Rip  cried  she  hush  you  little  fool  the  old  man  won't  hurt  you. 

The  name  of  the  child  the  air  of  the  mother  the  tone  of  her  voice  all 
awakened  a  train  of  recollections  in  his  mind.  What  is  your  name 
my  good  woman  asked  he. 

Judith  Gardenier. 

And  your 'father's  name 

Ah  poor  man  Rip  Van  Winkle  was  his  name  but  it's  twenty  years  since 
he  went  away  from  home  with  his  gun  and  never  has  been  heard  of 
since  his  dog  came  home  without  him  but  whether  he  shot  himself 
or  was  carried  away  by  the  Indians  nobody  can  tell.  I  was  then 
but  a  little  girl. 

Rip  had  but  one  question  more  to  ask  and  he  put  it  with  a  faltering 
voice. 

Where's  your  mother 

Oh  she  too  had  died  but  a  short  time  since  she  broke  a  blood  vessel  in  a 
fit  of  passion  at  a  New  England  peddler. 

EXERCISE  52 

Punctuate  the  following  passages,  giving  reasons : 

1.  There  is  one  great  amalgamating  principle  influencing  Jew  and  Gentile 

Catholic  and  Protestant  Christian  and  Mohammedan  the  Golden 
Rule  Do  unto  others  as  you  would  have  them  do  unto  you. 

2.  There  is  a  deal  of  vile  nonsense  talked  upon  both  sides  of  the  matter 

tearing  divines  reducing  life  to  the  dimensions  of  a  mere  funeral  pro- 
cession so  short  as  to  be  hardly  decent  and  melancholy  unbelievers 
yearning  for  the  tomb  as  if  it  were  a  world  too  far  away. — Stevenson 

3.  Heyworth  looked  at  the  load  sadly  suddenly  as  if  he  feared  to  test  his 

resolution  he  began  unloading  overcoat  extra  shoes  extra  underwear 
until  at  last  were  left  one  suit  of  underwear  one  wool  shirt  one  pair  of 
socks  these  to  last  him  three  months 

4.  The  angels  not  half  so  happy  in  heaven 

Went  envying  her  and  me 
Yes  that  was  the  reason  as  all  men  know 

In  this  kingdom  by  the  sea 
That  the  wind  came  out  of  the  cloud  by  night 

Chilling  and  killing  my  Annabel  Lee.  — "Annabel  Lee,"  Poe 

5.  Legal-tender  money  in  payment  of  private  debts  consists  of  any  gold 

coin  silver  dollars  United  States  notes  ("greenbacks")  and  United 
States  Treasury  notes  to  any  amount  fractional  silver  coins  to  the 
amount  of  ten  dollars  nickel  and  copper  coins  to  the  amount  of 


148  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

twenty-five  cents  gold  and  silver  certificates  and  national  bank  notes 
are  not  legal-tender  money  but  are  ordinarily  received  in  payment 
of  debts  without  objection  — Huff  cut 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  VIII 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  word  groups  within  a  sentence? 

2.  What  are  the  three  marks  of  punctuation  used  to  indicate  degrees  • 
of  separation? 

3.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  separate  words  in  series? 

4.  Why  is  it  proper  to  use  a  comma  in  addition  to  and  near  the  end 
of  a  series? 

5.  Why  should  an  "eddy"  or  a  parenthetical  word  group  be  set  off  by 
punctuation? 

6.  What   is   meant  by   restrictive   and  non-restrictive  expressions? 
Illustrate.    Which  are  set  off  by  commas? 

7.  Are  all  appositives  set  apart  by  punctuation?    Explain. 

8.  Explain  this  statement:    A  comma  plus  a  conjunction  equals  a 
semicolon? 

0.  How  many  uses  of  the  dash  are  listed  in  the  text? 
10.  What  marks  are  used,  and  in  what  order,  for  purposes  of  classi- 
ficational  tabulation? 


CHAPTER  IX 
HOW  WORDS  ARE  MADE 

111.  Word  Families.  Throughout  our  lives  we  are  learn- 
ing new  words — we  must  if  we  would  keep  pace  with  the  times. 
The  broader  the  vocabulary  of  which  we  ^re  masters,  the  better 
fitted  we  shall  be  for  opportunities  that  arise.  In  increasing 
our  knowledge  of  words,  we  shall  be  greatly  aided  by  remember- 
ing that  they,  like  people,  are  often  associated  in  families. 
When  one  meets  a  stranger  named  Brown  in  a  foreign  city  he 
is  ordinarily  not  much  impressed.  However,  if  he  learns  that 
the  man  is  a  brother  of  his  neighbor  Brown  at  home,  his  interest 
is  at  once  aroused.  When  one  sees  in  the  word  petroleum  the 
same  root  (petro,  rock)  that  he  meets  in  salt  petre  (potassium 
nitrate,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder)  and  in  petrify, 
the  relationship  makes  an  impression^  which  is  again  made 
much  deeper  when  he  meets  petrography  (graphy,  to  write), 
the  art  of  writing  on  stone,  or  petrary,  an  ancient  war  engine 
for  hurling  stones.  He  may  continue  if  he  wishes  and  learn 
that  the  given  name  Peter  means  rock,  and  that  the  stormy 
petrel  was  so  named  because  it  was  believed  that  it  can  walk 
upon  the  sea  as  did  the  Apostle  Peter. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  changes  in  meaning  within  a  family 
of  words.  Most  people  know  that  sanguine  means  hopeful, 
ardent,  confident:  the  root  syllable  sang  means  blood,  and  the 
word  gets  its  meaning  from  the  optimism  of  full-blooded, 
healthy  people.  But  on  the  other  hand,  sanguinary  means 
bloody,  murderous,  cruel;  sang-froid  (froid  is  related  to  frigid) 
means  coolness,  indifference,  freedom  from  excitement;  and 
consanguinity  means  relationship  by  blood. 

It  is,  of  course,  not  possible  to  analyze  and  associate  all 
the  words  in  the  language.  Many  of  the  more  common  words 
require  no  analysis,  and  some  are  not  formed  along  logical  lines. 
However,  the  roots  of  many  of  our  words,  derivatives  from 
Latin  and  Greek,  may  be  recognized  in  dozens  of  different  com- 

149 


150  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

binations,  and  thus  the  learning  of  many  words  may  depend 
upon  knowing  the  meaning  of  one  syllable. 

112.  Plan  of  the  Following  Exercises.  It  is  not  desirable 
in  this  small  book  to  analyze  completely  a  great  multitude  of 
words.  Scientific  analysis  of  our  vocabulary  belongs  to  the 
field  of  philology,  a  difficult  science;  but  a  knowledge  of  some 
of  the  more  common  word  elements  will  be  useful.  The  follow- 
ing series  of  exercises  is  intended  to  give  the  student  some  skill 
in  guessing  at  the  meaning  of  strange  words  through  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  principal  roots  in  common  use,  thereby  making  him 
less  dependent  on  the  dictionary  and  at  the  same  time  giving 
him  considerable  increase  in  reading 


EXERCISE  68 

Bring  to  class  two  words  employing  each  of  the  common 
prefixes  listed  below.  Be  able  to  define  the  words. 

1.  a  -  06  -  abst  away  from.  22.  mw,  bad,  ill. 

2.  ad  l,  to.  23.  mono,  one. 

3.  ante,  before.  24.  nan  l,  not. 

4.  an/?',  against.  25.  ob  *,  against. 

5.  hi,  t\vi<    .  26.  omnt,  all. 

6.  cata,  down.  27.  per,  through. 

7.  ctrcum,  around.  28.  pert,  around. 

8.  contro  -  contra,  against.  29.  poly,  many. 

9.  co  -  con  »,  with.  30.  post,  after. 

10.  de  -  dit  down,  away.  31.  pre,  before. 

11.  dia,  thru.  32.  pro,  forward,  for. 

12.  dis  l,  apart.  33.  re  -  red,  again,  back. 

13.  epi,  upon.  34.  retro,  backward. 

14.  e  -  ex  l,  out,  forth.  35.  se  -  sed,  away  from. 

15.  eu,  good.  36.  semi,  half. 

16.  extra,  beyond.  37.  sub1,  under. 

17.  in  -  en,  in,  into.  38.  super,  over. 

18.  in  -  un  l,  not,  contrary  to.  39.  syn,  with,  up. 

19.  inter,  between.  40.  trans,  across. 

20.  intra  -  intro,  among.  41.  ultra,  beyond. 

21.  mal,  bad.  42.  uni,  one. 

'For  ease  of  pronunciation,  the  last  letter  of  a  prefix  often  changes  either  to  the 
first  letter  of  the  root  syllable  (thus  in-legible  becomes  illegible)  or  to  a  letter  easily  pro- 
nounced with  the  next  syllable  (thus  in-possible  becomes  impossible).  In  this  manner 
the  prefix  con,  for  example,  may  become  com,  co,  cog,  cor,  col;  and  other  prefixes  are  varied 
in  like  manner. 


HOW  WORDS  ARE  MADE  151 

EXERCISE  54 

Bring  to  class  two  words  employing  each  of  the  common 
suffixes  listed  below. l  Be  able  to  define  the  words. 


1.  able  (ible). 

15.  fold. 

29.  /bin. 

2.  al  (eal,  ial). 

16.  ful. 

30.  less. 

3.  ance  (ence,  ancy, 

ency).  17.  fy  (ify). 

31.  Ze*. 

4.  ant  (ent). 

18.  hood. 

32.  ling. 

5.  ary  (ory). 

19.  ran. 

33.  fy. 

6.  ate. 

20.  ic  (ical). 

34.  men£. 

7.  dom. 

21.  me. 

35.  ness. 

8.  ed. 

22.  ing. 

36.  ous  (ious,  eous). 

9.  ee. 

23.  ise  (ize,  yze). 

37.  ship. 

.0.  en. 

24.  isft. 

38.  some. 

.1.  er  (or). 

25.  ism. 

39.  tion  (sion,  ion,  etc.). 

.2.  ese. 

26.  ist  (ite). 

40.  tude. 

3.  ess. 

27.  %  (ty). 

41.  ward. 

4.  est. 

28.  we. 

42.  y  (ey). 

EXERCISE  55 

Bring  to  class  two  words  built  wholly  or  in  part  on  each 
of  the  root  syllables  in  the  exercises  that  follow  (55-59  inclusive). 
Be  able  to  define  the  words  in  a  general  way.  Instead  of  trying 
to  memorize  the  root  meanings,  try  to  discover  the  common 
idea  in  two  or  three  words  consisting  in  part  of  the  same  root 
syllable.  Combine  as  often  as  you  can  the  prefixes  and  suf- 
fixes in  Exercises  53  and  54  with  the  roots  in  Exercises  55-59. 

1.  ammo,  life  13.  celer,  quick 

2.  ann,  year  14.  cent,  hundred 

3.  aper,  open  15.  chron,  time 

4.  aqua,  water  16.  cor  (d),  heart 

5.  aster,  star  17.  cor  on,  crown 

6.  and,  hear  18.  corp,  body 

7.  aur,  gold  19.  cred,  believe 

8.  bene,  good  20.  curr,  run 

9.  brev,  short  21.  demo,  people 

10.  cap  (it),  head  22.  dent,  tooth 

11.  earn,  flesh  23.  diet  say 

12.  ced,  cess,          give,  move  24.  domin,  master 


llt  is  impossible  to  give  the  meanings  of  these  suffixes  as  the  meanings  of  the  prefixes 
have  been  given.  For  this  reason  some  teachers  may  prefer  to  concentrate  the  attention 
on  the  roots  and  the  prefixes. 


152 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


EXERCISE  66 

25.  dorm, 

sleep 

38.  gram, 

letter 

26.  due  (/), 

lead 

39.  graph, 

write 

27,  foe, 

face 

40.  grot, 

favor 

28.  fact,  fie, 

make 

41.  hydro, 

\v:tt«T 

29.  fer, 

carry,  bear 

42.  ject, 

cast 

30.  fid, 

l.Mth 

43.  jud(ie), 

law 

31.  fin, 

end 

44.  junct, 

join 

32.  fluo, 

flow 

45.  jur. 

law 

33.  frag,  fract, 

break 

46.  hrat,  era/, 

rule 

34.  /u0(i), 

flee 

47.  lot, 

carry 

86.  ft 

earth 

48.  Jinou, 

tongue 

oO.  gcfi, 

birth 

49.  liter, 

letter 

37.  orod,  oress, 

step 

• 

50.  /iM, 

stone 

EXl 

ERCISE  67 

51.  /oc, 

place 

63.  mon, 

advise 

52.  /oou, 

speak 

64.  mono, 

one,  alone 

53.  magna, 

KttTfQ 

65.  mart, 

54.  manu, 

hand 

66.  mo/,  mob, 

move 

55.  mar,  mer, 

>r;i 

67.  nom(en), 

Maine 

56.  mater, 

mother 

68.  nunci, 

announce 

57.  mens, 

measure 

69.  ocul, 

eye 

58.  men/, 

mind 

70.  part, 

divide 

59.  mere, 

pay 

71.  pater, 

father 

60.  meter, 

measure 

72.  ped, 

foot 

61.  miar, 

move 

73.  pell,  puU, 

drive 

62.  mitt,  miss, 

send 

74.  pen, 

repent 

EXERCISE  58 

75.  phono, 

sound 

88.  quadro,  quar, 

four 

76.  photo, 

light 

89.  quer9 

complain 

77.  pig,  pic/, 

paint 

90.  oner,  ouir, 

ask 

78.  ptoc, 

please 

91.  guiesc, 

quiet,  rest 

79.  plen, 

full 

92.  rod, 

root 

80.  pJic, 

ply,  fold 

93.  radi, 

ray 

81.  polis, 

city,  citadel 

94.  reg,  red, 

rule 

82.  port, 

carry 

95.  rupt, 

break 

83.  por/, 

gate 

96.  sacr, 

holy 

84.  posit,  pose, 

place 

97.  sal, 

salt 

85.  poten/, 

powerful 

98.  sane/, 

holy 

86.  prim, 

first 

99.  sa(0, 

enough 

87.  punct, 

point 

100.  scend, 

climb 

HOW  WORDS  ARE  MADE 


153 


EXERCISE  59 


101.  sci, 

know 

102.  script, 

write 

103.  secut,  sequ, 

follow 

104.  sen, 

old 

105.  sens, 

feel 

106.  sist, 

stand 

107.  sol, 

alone 

108.  sped,  spic, 

see 

109.  spir, 

breathe 

110.  stell, 

star 

111.  struct, 

build 

112.  sim/, 

rise 

113.  to#,  tact, 

touch 

114.  tegr,  ted, 

cover 

115.  tel, 

far 

116. 

temp, 

time 

117. 

tens,  tent, 

stretch 

118. 

terra, 

earth 

119. 

tors,  tort, 

twist 

120. 

typ, 

stamp 

121. 

vad, 

walk 

122. 

ven(t), 

come 

123. 

ver, 

true 

124. 

vert, 

turn 

125. 

vid,  vis, 

see 

126. 

viv, 

live 

127. 

voc, 

call 

128. 

volo, 

desire 

129. 

volv,  volut, 

roll 

EXERCISE  6O 


What  do  the  words  mean  in  the  following  series  of  exercises 
(60-64  inclusive)?  Do  not  use  the  dictionary,  but  refer  to  the 
lists  of  roots  on  the  preceding  pages.  Your  problem  is  to  arrive 
at  a  meaning  for  each  word  through  the  syllables. 


primeval 

prima  facie 

punctuate 

punctilious 

pedal 

pedometer 

linguistic 

magnify 

confident 

fidelity 

Genesis 

generate 

definite 

finite 

emigration 

Eugene 

sacrament 

mensuration 

mermaid 


commensurate 

portico 

abrupt 

deportment 

interruption 

potential 

eruption 

potentate 

Sacramento 

impotent 

sacrifice 

incredible 

sacrilegious 

creed 

stellar 

credit 

constellation 

cordial 

stelliform 

cordate 

migration 

manual 

immigration 

amanuensis 

capital 

manipulate 

decapitate 

jurisdiction 

caption 

adjudicate 

maritime 

judiciary 

portal 

factory 

porter 

facsimile 

portage 

de  facto 

UM 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


EXERCISE    61 

fluent 

radical 

carnivorous 

superfluous 

eradicate 

incarnate 

confluence 

placate 

exsanguinated 

torture 

implacable 

versimilitude 

terra  firma 

placid 

temporize 

Mediterranean 

revolve 

democracy 

terrestrial 

involve 

epidemic 

local 

involution 

demography 

locomotive 

radiate 

tensile 

in  loco  parentis 

radius 

tent 

conjunction. 

radiograph 

tension 

juncture 

primitive 

integument 

adjunct 

primordial 

protect 

plenty 

primogeniture 

sanctuary 

plenipotentiary 

tortuous 

sanctify 

replenish 

retort 

sanction 

enunciate 

quadruped 

salt 

announce 

auadrcnnial 

saline 

pronounce 

«|«MV 

quadrilateral 

tempus  fugit 

radish 

carnal 

temporal 

EXERCISE  62 

telescope 

regular 

contact 

telemeter 

correct 

convene 

telephone 

rectify 

advent 

query 

convert 

prevent 

inquiry 

revert 

evade 

verify 

versatile 

pervade 

VeraCrui 

vertebrae 

invade 

veritable 

vivacious 

quiet 

science 

vivisection  (sect  -  cut) 

quiescent 

prescience 

revise 

requiem 

omniscient 

vocation 

requiescat  in 

manuscript 

vocal 

pace 

prescribe 

revoke 

consecutive 

proscribe 

supervise 

sequacious 

scripture 

visit 

sequel 

circumscribe 

viz.  (videlicit;  the  z 

satisfy 

sensation 

is  from  an  old  char- 

insatiable 

sensitive 

acter  used  as  a  sign 

satiated 

senile 

of  abbreviation) 

resist 

senate 

tangent 

consist 

senescent 

intangible 

insistent 

HOW  WORDS  ARE  MADE 


155 


EXERCISE  63 

solitude    • 

euphony 

depict 

sole 

nominate 

picture 

solo 

nominal 

oculist 

inspiration 

nomenclature 

occult 

spiracle 

monitory 

binocular 

respire 

admonish 

metrical 

spectator 

premonition 

meter 

spectacle 

paternal 

comptometer 

conspicuous 

patriotism 

mortal 

surging 

expatriate 

mortgage 

resurgent  • 

matricide 

post  mortem 

resurrect 

maternal 

loquacious 

deduce 

matrix 

elocution 

ductile 

propel 

eloquent 

induction 

dispel 

transfer 

education 

impel 

defer 

partition 

penitentiary 

fragile 

particle 

penance 

fracture 

phonic 

penal 

fraction 

phonograph 

pigment 

sense 

EXERCISE  64 

project 

coronet 

benefactor 

trajectory 

dictionary 

animated 

projectile 

indict 

introspect 

literary 

dictaphone 

epidermis 

illiterate 

dormant 

malefactor 

lithograph 

dormitory 

polygamy 

monolith 

dormer  (window) 

misled 

transmit 

dominion 

secession 

missionary 

domino 

retroactive 

missile 

corpse 

synthesis 

centennial 

Corpus  Christi 

analysis 

century 

incorporate 

cataclysm 

centipede 

asteroid 

cataract 

annual 

astronomy 

dispel 

per  annum 

asterisk 

ultra-conservative 

A.  D.  (anno  domini) 

dentate 

superheated 

celerity 

dentist 

interurban 

accelerate 

indent 

eulogy 

corona 

chronometer 

circumnavigate 

coroner 

chronology 

visible 

156  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

113.  The  Use  of  the  Dictionary.  The  foregoing  exercises 
should  not  give  the  student  the  impression  that  he  can  get  along 
without  the  dictionary.  On  the  contrary,  he  will  often  need 
to  verify  his  guessing,  and  he  will  profit  by  much  study  of  the 
dictionary.  But  there  are  wrong  ways  to  use  the  dictionary 
even  when  the  searcher  is  diligent.  The  best  possible  use  is 
that  which  will  make  further  reference  less  necessary.  The 
mere  act  of.  looking  up  a  word  is  very  often  unprofitable. 

A  little  study  of  a  word,  however,  will  almost  always  yield 
a  rich  return.  The  pupil  should,  first  of  all,  look  for  the  origin 
of  the  word.  Next  he  should  examine  other  words  before  and 
after  to  see  if  there  are  others  from  the  same  root,  and  last  he 
should  note  carefully  the  meaning  of  the  word,  the  meanings 
of  words  of  the  same  family,  and  the  use  of  these  words  in  the 
illustrative  sentences  given.  As  he  closes  the  dictionary  he 
should  forih  a  little  unspoken  sentence  or  sentence  element 
employing  his  newly  acquired  knowledge.  This  entire  process 
will  hardly  increase  the  time  required  to  examine  a  word  by 
ten  per  cent,  but  it  will  generally  increase  his  power  to  use  the 
word  by  several  hundred  per  cent. 

For  example,  suppose  the  word  is  salvage.  In  Webster's 
International  Dictionary  (quoted  only  in  part),  he  will  find 
the  following: 

salvage,  (L[atin]  salvarc,  see  save)  1.    The  act  of  saving  a  vessel, 
goods,  or  life  from  perils  of  the  sea. 

Near  the  word  salvage  are  these  words: 

salvable — capable  of  being  saved. 

salvability — quality  of  being  salvable. 

salvation — the  act  of  saving;  deliverance  from  destruction. 

salvatory — a  place  where  things  are  preserved. 

salve  (saTve) — hail   (God  save  you). 

There  are  several  other  words  from  this  root,  not  to  mention 
save  and  safe.  After  the  pupil  has  given  a  few  seconds  to  the 
study  of  this  group  of  words,  he  will  probably  be  able  to  work 
out  the  meaning  of  the  legal  phrase  salvo  jure  (jure — law,  jury), 


HOW  WORDS  ARE  MADE  157 

the  right  of  being  safe,  without  further  use  of  the  dictionary. 
Few  people  know  the  good  things  to  be  found  in  the  diction- 
ary. Frequently  people  go  to  the  trouble  of  writing  questions 
to  magazines  and  newspapers  which  could  easily  be  answered 
by  reference  to  any  good  dictionary. 

EXERCISE  65 

• 

Using  an  unabridged  dictionary  only,  answer  the  following 
questions : 

1.  Who  was  Arachne  (fiction)?     Barkis  ("Barkis  is  wfflin' ")? 

2.  What  is  the  population  of  Rutland,  Vermont? 

3.  What  and  where  is  Cremona?     Tara? 

4.  Who  was  Jane  Grey?     What  do  you  know  about  her? 

5.  How  do  you  pronounce  Zabadaias?  (From  the  Bible.) 

6.  How  do  you  pronounce  Pisistratus?  (Greek  history.) 

7.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  name  Richard?     Of  Huldah? 

8.  What  is  the  meaning  of  ad  interim?    Of  Honi  soit  qui  mat  y  pense? 

9.  Of  what  is  F.  R.  C.  P.  E.  an  abbreviation? 

EXERCISE  66 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  students  who  cannot  alphabetize 
with  accuracy.  This  exercise  is  to  correct  that  fault. 

Bring  to  class  slips  of  paper  about  one  inch  by  two  inches. 
From  a  list  of  the  members,  of  the  class  which  the  teacher 
should  have  on  the  board,  copy  one  name  on  each  slip,  in  the 
order  of  the  names  on  the  board.  At  a  signal  begin  to  arrange 
the  surnames  in  alphabetical  order.  An  error  in  the  spelling 
of  a  name  will  disqualify  a  contestant. 

Prepare  thirty  slips  and  on  each  copy  a  word  from  a  single 
page  of  a  dictionary.  Shake  the  slips  vigorously  and  then 
alphabetize  them. 

\ 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  IX 

1.  From  what  languages  come  most  of  the  words  which  can  be  ana- 
lyzed? 

2.  In  what  way  is  a  knowledge  of  word  formation  an  aid  to  spelling? 

3.  How  can  you  sometimes  bring  to  mind  a  word  which  you  need 
but  which  you  have  temporarily  lost? 


168  VOCATIONAL  ENGL I  s  1 1 

4.  Can  you  explain  how  in-legal  became  illegal f    How  in-pious  became 
impious? 

5.  What  is  the  most  profitable  method  of  using  the  dictionary? 

6.  How  do  some  men  gain  mastery  over  a  great  vocabulary? 


CHAPTER  X 
CAPITALIZATION  AND  SPELLING 

114.  Rules  for  Capitalization.  Pupils  entering  high  schools 
are  assumed  to  be  familiar  with  the  main  rules  as  to  the  use 
of  capitals — that  a  sentence  must  begin  with  a  capital,  for 
example;  that  within  a  sentence  proper  nouns  and  proper 
adjectives  begin  with  capitals,  etc.  For  review  and  reference, 
however,  the  more  important  rules  of  capitalization  are  summed 
up  below. 

1.  Capitalize  the  first  word  of  every  sentence.     But  do  not 
capitalize  the  first  word  after  a  semicolon.     The  first  word 
after  a  colon,  however,  is  capitalized  if  a  complete  sentence  or 
series  of  sentences  follows,  and  if  the  colon  accompanies,  or  is 
equivalent  to,  some  such  expression  as  as  follows. 

EXAMPLE:  My  reasons  were  these:  The  road  was  badly  paved;  my 
car  was  light  and  not  in  good  repair;  there  was  a  better  road  a  few 
miles  to  the  south. 

2.  Capitalize  the  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry. 

3.  Capitalize  the  first  word  of  every  direct  quotation  that 
consists  of  one  or  more  sentences  and  is  formally  introduced. 

EXAMPLE  :     We  very  distinctly  heard  the  doctor  say,  "You  are  unfair." 

But  do  not  capitalize  a  quoted  word,  phrase,  or  dependent 
clause  that  is  worked  closely  into  the  structure  of  a  sentence. 

EXAMPLES:    Abigail  thought  it  was  a  good  "idear." 

They  learned  that  "honesty  is  the  best  policy." 

4.  In  the  statement  of  formal  resolutions  or  propositions 
for  debate,  capitalize  the  first  word  after  Resolved  or  Whereas. 

EXAMPLE  :  Resolved,  That  the  American  government  should  take 
steps  to  acquire  ownership  of  the  coal  lands. 

5.  Capitalize  /  and  O  when  they  are  used  as  words.     But 
oh,  unless  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  is  not  capitalized. 

159 


160  VOCATIONAL  EN'H.lsil 

6.  Capitalize  proper  nouns  and  adjectives  derived  from  them. 
EXAMPLES:    America,  American;  Elizabeth,  Elizabethan. 

This  rule  seems  very  simple  and  is  generally  understood;  hut 
practical  difficulties  often  arise  as  to  just  what  words  are  proper 
nouns,  and  which  words  require  capitals  in  proper  names  con- 
sisting <>f  two  or  more  words.  Attention  is  therefore  called  to 
the  following  specific  cases: 

(a)  Capitalize  all  names  for  the  Supreme  Being;  for  the 
Bible  and  Other  sacred  books  and  for  the  books  of  the  Bible; 
for  church  functions. 

EXAMPLES:-  The  Almighty,  the  Savior;  the  Scriptures;  Easter. 

(b)  Capitalize  the  names  of  the  days  and  the  months,  but 
not  of  the  seasons. 

EXAMPLES:    Thursday,  August,  spring. 

(c)  Capitalize  East,  West,  North,  South,  etc.,    when    they 
mean  peoples  or  sections  of  the  country,  but  not  when  they 
mean  directions — points  of  the  compass. 

EXAMPLES:    I  have  always  lived  in  the  West. 

I  saw  a  dark  cloud  coming  from  the  west. 

(d)  Names  of  studies  are  not  ordinarily  capitalized,  except 
the  proper  names  of  languages. 

EXAMPLES:    arithmetic,  Latin. 

(e)  The  names  of  personified  qualities  or  things  or  animals 
are  usually  capitalized. 

EXAMPLE:    Thus  Nature  was  his  kind  teacher. 

(f)  Capitalize  le,  la,  de,  du,  in  French  names,  when  no 
title  or  Christian  name  precedes  them;  but  do  not  capitalize 
them  when  a  title  or  given  name  precedes. 

EXAMPLES:    De  Bracy,  Front  de  Boeuf. 

(g)  Always  capitalize  Van  in  Dutch  names;  never  capitalize 
von  in  German  names. 

EXAMPLES:    Van  Houghton,  von  Bismarck. 


CAPITALIZATION  AND  SPELLING  161 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  one  sometimes  writes 
his  name  in  a  manner  contrary  to  the  general  rule.  Anybody 
addressing  such  a  person  should  be  very  careful  to  write  the 
name  as  he  writes  it,  regardless  of  the  rule. 

(h)  Words  that  are  primarily  common  nouns  are  often 
capitalized  when  made  parts  of  proper  names.  The  distinc- 
tions in  usage  brought  out  below  should  be  very  carefully 
observed. 

EXAMPLES  : 

A  Chicago  high  school  (not  a  proper  name),  but  the  Hyde  Park 

High  School  (the  name  of  a  particular  school). 
Pennsylvania  mountains  (not  a  proper  name),  but  the  Allegheny 

Mountains. 

An  Illinois  canal,  but  the  Illinois-Michigan  Canal. 
A  party  of  scouts,  but  the  Boy  Scouts  (name  of  an  organization). 

(i)  Capitalize  the  first  word  and  all  the  longer  and  more 
important  words  in  titles  of  books,  pictures,  etc.  This  means 
that  usually  nouns,  adjectives  (but  not  articles  except  at  the 
beginning),  pronouns,  verbs,  and  adverbs  are  capitalized;  but 
not  prepositions  or  conjunctions  unless  they  are  very  long.1 

EXAMPLES:    The  Mark  of  the  Beast 
Life's  Little  Ironies 
As  You  Like  It 
Prue  and  I 

7.  As  a  general  rule,  capitalize  the  abbreviations  of  proper 
names;  do  not  capitalize  abbreviations  of  words  that  would 
not  be  capitalized. 

EXAMPLES:     Illinois — 111.;  Principal  (as  a  title) — Prin.;  quart — qt.; 
candle-power —  c.p. 

There  are  some  special  cases,  however.  Thus  abbreviations 
of  titles  are  regularly  capitalized  even  if  the  title  may  be  used 
as  a  common  noun. 

EXAMPLE:    Ph.  D.;  but  "He  is  a  doctor  of  philosophy.7'2 


1  Within  recent  years  it  has  become  customary  in  library  catalogues  and  with  some 
printers  not  to  use  capitals  in  the  titles  of  books,  except,  of  course,  for  the  first  word  of 
each  title  and  for  proper  nouns  and  adjectives. 

EXAMPLE:     Mrs.  Wiggs  of  the  cabbage  patch. 

2 A  title  in  connection  with  a  name,  however,  is  capitalized;  e.  g.,  Doctor  Coulter. 


l '  -'  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Note  also  that  the  following  abbreviations  are  capitalized, 
although  the  full  forms  employ  small  letters:  P.  O.,  post 
office;  N.  B.,  nota  bene  (note  well);  O.  K,  all  correct;  P.  M., 
post  master;  C.  O.  D.,  cash  on  delivery. 

In  general,  abbreviations  should  be  sparingly  used  except 
in  technical  work  in  which  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  use  them 
for  the  purpose  of  saving  space  and  time.  In  writing  of  any 
literary  quality,  abbreviations  are  hardly  at  all  used,  except 
a  few  like  etc.,  viz.,  i.  e.t  e.  g.,  a.  m.,  p.  m.,  A.  D.,  B.  C.  Students 
will  be  wise  (o  make  very  sure  of  the  propriety  of  any  use  of 
abbreviations  they  are  tempted  to  make,  judging  by  the 
custom  of  the  best  authorities  in  the  particular  kind  of  writing 
they  are  doing. 

BXBRCISE  67 

Write  the  following,  with  whatever  capitals  are  necessary: 

Indian  gods  m.  de  la  salle 

redeemer  (deity)  i.e.  engliah 

van  syckle  pt.  pull  man 

Illinois  river  f.o.b.  south  pole 

mother  p.p.  russian  empire 

my  mother  pp.  empire  of  russia 

god  e.g.  the  poet  office 

autumn  tex.  a  true  democrat 

in  the  south  etc.  englewood  high  school 

Wednesday  co.  high  schools  of  Chicago 

"you  win"  he  said  b/s.  forty-fourth  st. 

negro  b/e.  master  of  arts 

last  days  of  pompeii  o  d  (five  hundred) 

an  ohio  river  acct.  book  IV 

whereas  GUI'  friend  jr.  yours  truly 

gypsy  bbl.  civilization 

von  moltke  god's  mammon 

115.  Division  of  Words.  Years  ago,  at  the  "three  R's" 
period  of  education,  spelling  by  syllable  was  very  common. 
It  was  not  unusual  for  oral  spellers  to  pronounce,  then  spell, 
each  syllable  separately.  The  result  is  believed  by  some 
people  to  have  been  much  superior  to  that  of  our  present 
stress  on  written  spelling.  One  thing  evidently  might  be 


CAPITALIZATION  AND  SPELLING  163 

gained  by  the  old  method — correct  division  of  words  into 
syllables.  Often  children  try  to  spell  a  word  as  a  whole,  with 
the  result  that  they  omit  or  misspell  one  or  two  syllables. 
Spelling  by  syllables  has  its  advantages.  Suppose  the  word 
is  transubstantiation.  If  the  pupil  will  concern  himself  first  with 
Iran  alone,  he  will  not  miss  it;  th^n.  comes  sub,  which  is  easy. 
Syllable  by  syllable  he  will  complete  the  word. 

To  determine  syllables  the  dictionary  is,  of  course,  the  best 
authority  and  must  often  be  consulted.  A  few  general  princi- 
ples, however,  will  be  helpful  even  though  there  are  occasional 
exceptions. 

1.  Prefixes  and  suffixes  usually  constitute  distinct  syllables. 
See  the  lists  of  prefixes  and  suffixes  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
Exercises  53  and  54. 

2.  When  a  consonant  is  doubled  the  syllabic  division  is 
usually  between  the  two  letters.     This  rule  sometimes  accounts 
for  exceptions  to  number  1. 

EXAMPLES:     run-ning,  hop-ping. 

3.  Any  group  of  letters  not  easily  and  naturally  pronounced 
together  should  not  be  made  a  syllable. 

EXAMPLES  (wrong) :    Cat-holic,  bac-kache,  tob-acco. 

One  particularly  common  blunder  in  syllabication  (a  viola- 
tion of  both  rule  1  and  rule  3)  consists  in  making  a  syllable  of 
ion  in  such  words  as  attention,  dissension,  production,  etc.  The 
final  syllable  in  such  words  is  pronounced  as  if  spelled  shun. 
The  letters  ion  alone  could  not  possibly  account  for  such 
pronunciation;  the  preceding  t  or  s  belongs  to  the  final  syllable, 
which  is  tion  or  sion  as  the  case  may  be.  This  applies  to  nearly 
all  words  with  these  very  common  endings.  But  of  course  a 
different  principle  applies  to  such  a  word  as  onion.  It  is  pro- 
nounced un-yun;  the  syllables,  therefore,  are  on-ion. 

Another  common  error  is  treating  ed  as  a  distinct  syllable 
in  words  in  which  it  is  not  a  syllable.  Liked,  for  example,  is 
one  syllable  and  cannot  be  divided. 


164  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

116.  Dividing  a  Word  at  the  End  of  a  Line.  Words  should 
never  be  divided  at  the  ends  of  lines  except  between  syllables. 
This  is  an  absolute  rule  and  the  violation  of  it  makes  a  very 
bad  impression  on  any  reader.  It  does  not  follow,  however, 
that  any  word  may  be  divided  between  any  two  syllables.  On 
account  of  misunderstandings  that  may  result,  at  least  for  a 
moment,  it  is  desirable  to  observe  the  following  general  in-t  m<  - 
ii<>ns  regarding  the  division  of  words  between  syllables: 

1.  Do  not  divide  very  short  words.    There  is  no  need  of 
doing  this  and  the  result  is  awkward. 

EXAMPLES  (undesirable) :    He  tried  ev  -  cry  door. 

Put  down  all  the  e  -  ven  numbers. 

2.  Avoid  division  of  surnames. 

EXAMPLE  (undesirable) :    He  turned  the  work  over  to  Mr.  Camp  -  bell. 

3.  Be  sure  that  the  first  part  of  the  divided  word  does  not 
give  a  wrong  impression,  or  tend  to  cause  mispronunciation. 
Thus  in  the  first  example  below,  the  reader  gets  the  idea  of 
number — ten — and  readjustment  in  the  next  line  requires  un- 
necessary labor;  in  the  other  examples  the  natural  tendency, 
on  seeing  the  first  syllable  alone,  i-  t<>  mispronounce. 

EXAMPLES  (misleading): 

(1)  The  squid  has  ten  -  tacles  about  the  mouth. 

(2)  The  green  bananas  would  not  rip  -  en. 

(3)  As  it  was,  there  was  no  -  thing  to  be  done. 

(4)  That  in  itself  was  her  -  itage  enough. 

4.  Avoid  all  strange-looking  syllables  resulting  from  division, 
even  though  the  break  is  between  syllables. 

EXAMPLES:    hor-ses,  reada-ble,  une-ven. 

Correct  division  of  words  is  a  matter  of  watchfulness — as, 
indeed,  is  correct  English  generally.  It  is  every  writer's  duty 
to  present  his  ideas  with  as  few  distracting  elements  as  possible. 
A  reader  will  resent  receiving  a  wrong  impression,  even  though 
he  may  not  be  conscious  of  the  exact  cause  of  his  irritation 


CAPITALIZATION  AND  SPELLING  165 

EXERCISE  68 

Where  would  you  divide  the  following  words?  Before 
using  a  dictionary  try  breaking  each  word  as  you  would  if  it 
came  at  the  end  of  a  line. 

gallant  uttered  analyzed  business  loving 

nation  question  strength  lovely  omission 

invention  running  pictures  Passover  diaphragm 

unhesitatingly  union  audible  active  knowledge 

117.  Compound  Words.  Our  customs  with  regard  to 
compound  words  are  so  inconsistent  that  general  rules  cannot 
be  given.  The  student  will  have  to  learn  which  words  require 
the  hyphen,  which  are  run  together  without  it,  and  which 
groups  make  two  or  more  words.  Pronunciation  will  often 
aid  in  determining  the  matter,  but  in  many  cases  it  will  be 
necessary  to  consult  the  dictionary.  The  following  observa- 
tions also  will  be  of  some  help,  even  though  there  are  unfor- 
tunately many  exceptions  to  the  general  principles  mentioned : 

1.  .Short  words  that  have  bepn  associated  for  a  long  time 
and  are  pronounced  with  a  single  effort  and  unequal  stress  are 
very  commonly  made  one  word,  without  a  hyphen. 

EXAMPLES:    sidewalk,  sheepskin,  honeymoon. 

2.  When  two  words  that  are  combined  receive  equal  em- 
phasis and  separate  pronunciation,  the  hyphen  is  likely  to  be 
used. 

EXAMPLES:     deaf-mute,  cat's-paw. 

The  general  practice  may  be  fairly  well  summed  up  as 
follows:  Compounds  of  common  words  like  book,  house,  shop, 
etc.,  when  the  prefixed  word  is  of  one  syllable,  are  not  hyphen- 
ated. When  the  preceding  word  consists  of  two  syllables,  the 
hyphen  is  used.  When  the  preceding  word  consists  of  three 
or  more  syllables,  the  two  words  are  written  separately. 

EXAMPLES:  toyshop  tailor-shop  electric  shop 

storeroom  cooling-room  operating  room 

While  this  is  a  valuable  test  it  must  be  checked  with  the 
dictionary's   record   of   common   usage,    for   there   are   many 


iea 


VOCATIONAL  EMiUMI 


exceptions.    The  following  sections  will  deal  with  numerous 
specific  examples  of  the  different  forms. 

118.  Words  Sometimes  Wrongly  Combined.     The  follow- 
ing expressions  consist  of  separate  words  and  should  not  be 
used  as  single  words  or  with  the  hyphen: 

every  time  in  spite  of 

no  one  on  to 

per  cent.  some  day 

all  right    (There  is  no  such  word  as  alright.) 

near  by    (Nearby  and  near-by  are  questionable  forms.) 

119.  Words  Written  Without  a  Break.     Each  word'in  the 
groups  listed  below  is  one  word,  written  without  the  hyphen: . 

All  combinations  ending  in  self — myself,  yourself,  themselves,  etc. 

All  combinations  <-nding  in  body — anybody,  somebody,1  nobody. 

All  combinations  ending  in  Min^-— anything,  something,  nothing,  every- 
thing, etc. 

All  combinations  ending  in  ever — whatever,  whoever,  wherever,  whenever, 
etc. 

All  combinations  ending  in  where — elsewhere,  nowhere,  somewhere,  etc. 

The  following  words  are  not  divided: 

almost 

already  (Do  not  confuse 
this  with  all  [is]  ready.) 
although 
altogether 
always 
apiece 

biennial  (triennial,  etc.) 
childhood 
everlasting 
extraordinary 
farewell 
forthcoming 

1  In  a  different  sense  some  body  may  be  two  words,  some  being  then  an  adjective. 
EXAMPLE:    The  eclipse  was  caused  by  the  passage  of  some  body  between  the  earth 

and  the  sun. 

1  Sometime  (one  word,  an  adverb)  should  be  distinguished  from  some  time  (two  words, 
meaning  a  considerable  period). 

EXAMPLE:  Sometime  1  hope  to  go  to  Europe.   My  brother  has  spent  some  time  there. 
*  To-day,  to-morrow,  and  to-night  used  to  be  considered  the  proper  forms  and  are  still 
preferred  by  some  writers,  but  the  forms  without  the  hyphen  are  also  in  general  use. 


inasmuch 

schoolboy 

inside  (outside,  onside, 

schoolmaster  (but 

etc.) 

school  teacher) 

instead 

semicolon 

midnight 

sometimes1 

moreover 

somewhat 

nevertheless 

surname 

nickname 

today' 

notwithstanding 

together 

nowadays 

tomorrow1 

outstretch 

tonight* 

railroad 

wardrobe 

rewrite 

without 

CAPITALIZATION  AND  SPELLING  167 

120.  Words  Employing  the  Hyphen.    Compounds  beginning 
with  the  following  words   are   almost   always   written    with, 
hyphens : 

by — by-laws,  by-path,  by-products,  etc. 
extra — extra-fine  (but  extraordinary). 

father  (sister,  son,  etc.) — mother-city,  sister-church,  brother-mason,  son- 
in-law,  etc.  (but  fatherland). 

fellow — fellow-man,  fellow-servant,  etc.  (but  fellowship). 
half  (and  quarter) — half -moon,  half-mast,  quarter-mile. 
self—  self-evident,  self-supporting. 
world  (worldly) — world-empire,  worldly-minded. 

A  great  many  compound  adjectives  require  the  hyphen  in 
order  to  prevent  ambiguity  or  awkwardness. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

1.  Even  ten  story  buildings   are           1.  Even    ten-story    buildings  are 

rare  in  Europe.  rare  in  Europe. 

2.  The  home  of  the  Anglo-Saxons          2.  The  home  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 

was  a  low  lying  section.  was  a  low-lying  section. 

3.  My    home    made    pickles    are          3.  My     home-made     pickles    are 

delicious.  delicious. 

4.  A  tall,  red  haired  man  greeted          4.  A  tall,  red-haired  man  greeted 

me.  me. 

Many  prefixes  and  some  words  are  followed  by  the  hyphen 
when  they  terminate  in  a  letter  the  same  as  that  beginning  the 
root  syllable  or  the  next  word. 

EXAMPLES:  pre-eminent,  co-ordinate,  bell-like,  head-dress,  night- 
time, pale-eyed. 

In  printing,  the  dieresis  (  ••  )  is  sometimes  used  over  the 
second  of  the  two  vowels  that  meet,  instead  of  the  hyphen 
between  them. 

EXAMPLES:    preeminent,  cooperate. 

Notice  the  effect  on  the  meaning  secured  by  making  one 
word  out  of  two  or  more  separate  words.  What  are  the  dif- 
ferences between  the  following  pairs? 

(1)  A  hot-bed  and  a  hot  bed. 

(2)  A  dancing-school  and  a  dancing  school. 

(3)  A  sidewalk  and  a  side  walk. 


ins  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

How  many  meanings  can  you  get  from  the  following  words 
1)\  inserting  hyphens? 

(1)  Twenty  five  cent  pieces. 

(2)  A  man  eating  tiger. 

EXERCISE  60 

Correct  all  errors  you  find  in  the  following  list   (some 
expressions  are  now  correct) : 


self  seeking 

frllowservant 

no-thing 

bookkeeping 

log  book 

alright 

homelike 

any  thing 

ail-though 

cannot 

everytime 

anywhere 

onto 

toyshop 

not  withstanding 

book  case 

byways 

today 

life  blood 

cold  drawn 

elsewhere 

school  house 

percent 

life  long 

world  politics 

half  turn 

church  wedding 

moon  shine 

water-tight 

any  body 

ice-man 

nearby 

drugstore 

ice-cream 

over  anxious 

sometime 

self-reliance 

moreover 

rabbitskin 

121.  Spelling  Out  Numbers.  In  general  it  is  best  to  write 
out  in  words  all  numbers  from  one  to  one  hundred  inclusive, 
except  as  indicated  in  the  next  section;  and  likewise  all  large 
numbers  that  may  be  spoken  of  as  hundreds,  thousands,  etc. 

EXAMPLES: 

The  (    stance  is  about  eighty-five  miles,  and  there  are  two  stations 

ab  ut  ten  miles  apart. 

It  was  possible  to  secure  about  nineteen  hundred  recruits  from  a 
county  of  twenty-five  thousand  population. 

Note,  however,  that  while  we  write  out  twenty-five  thousand, 
we  preferably  use  figures  to  express  25,500,  because  it  would 
be  awkward  to  spell  this  all  out.  Some  special  points  worth 
noting  are: 

(a)  Always  spell  out  a  number  beginning  a  sentence. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

109  men  constituted  the  force.  One  hundred  nine  men  constituted 

the  force. 
Or:  The  force  consisted  of  109  men. 


CAPITALIZATION  AND  SPELLING  169 

(b)  Spell  out  the  time  of  day  (but  figures  are  used  in  time 
tables). 

EXAMPLE  :    seven-thirty. 

(c)  Spell  out  ages. 

EXAMPLE  :     eighteen  years,  seven  months. 

(d)  Spell  out  sums  of  money  less  than  a  dollar  (except  in 
lists  containing  sums  of  more  than  a  dollar),  and   "round 
numbers"  in  larger  amounts. 

EXAMPLES:     It  cost  ninety  cents. 

I  paid  thirty  dollars  for  it. 

122.  When  Figures  May  Be  Used.  The  practice  explained 
in  the  foregoing  section  applies  to  ordinary  writing  in  which 
numbers  are  not  extensively  used.  In  writing  that  involves 
extensive  use  of  statistics  of  any  sort,  figures  are  used  much 
more  freely,  both  to  save  space,  and  to  save  time  for  the  reader. 
The  general  principle  is  not  to  spell  out  numbers  of  a^  com- 
plicated nature.  Thus  we  use  figures  for: 

(a)  Dates. 
EXAMPLE:     May  24,  1895. 

(b)  Dollars  and  cents. 
EXAMPLE:     $4.72. 

(c)  Street  numbers  of  houses  and  other  buildings. 
EXAMPLE:     753  Washington  Street. 

(d)  Numbers  of  three  figures  or  more  that  are  not  even 
hundreds,  thousands,  etc. 

EXAMPLES:    204  (but  two  hundred),  11,260  (but  eleven  thousand). 

(d)  Per  cent  and  ratio  (except  in  writing  of  a  distinctly 
literary  character). 

EXAMPLES:    6  per  cent  on  loans;  the  ratio  is  2  to  3. 


170  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

(e)  A  list  of  articles,  a  group  of  dimensions,  or  any  series 
of  numbers  or  collection  of  statistics  that  would  become  tin  - 
some  to  the  reader  if  spelled  out. 

EXAMPLES: 

Please  send  2  doz.  no.  4622  shirts,  size  16. 

In  1896  there  were  11  cases  of  small  pox,  242  of  measles,  112 

of  tetanus,  etc. 

The  living  room  was  16  by  24  feet;  the  dining  room,  15  by  18;  the 
kitchen,  12  by  14.1 

EXERCISE  7O 

Correct  the  following: 

1.  The  Panama  Canal  is  50  miles  long.     It  was  begun  in  nineteen  hundred 

and  four.     Lieut.  Col.  Geo.  W.  Goethals  was  made  chief  engineer 
in  nmrtrrn  hundred  seven.    The  average  depth  is  42  feet. 

2.  His  bill  was  seven  dollars  and  eighteen  cents  for  board  and  $.90  for 

laundry.    There  was  a  $5.00  charge  extra  for  his  7-year-old  boy. 

3.  69  divorces  per  100,000  were  granted  in  Alabama  in  1900,  as  against 

10  for  the  same  population  in  1870. 

4.  At  7:30  the  man  died  aged  87  yean,  seven  months,  and  24  days. 

5.  The  room  was  eighteen  by  six  by  12  feet  and  would  accommodate  10 

machines  costing  eighteen  dollars  and  sixty  cents  each  on  a  daily 
outlay  of  $.80  each. 

6.  6  or  7  of  us  fellows  planned  to  go  camping  at  67th  and  the  lake.     I  had 

only  2  dollars  but  my  cousin  had  $3.15;  so  we  decided  to  rent  a  tent. 

123.  Some  Rules  of  Spelling.  English  spelling  is  notorious- 
ly inconsistent  and  confusing,  so  that  in  general  the  spelling 
of  each  word  is  learned  by  itself;  nevertheless  there  are  some 
rather  simple  rules  that  will  be  helpful  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  there  are  exceptions  to  most  of  them. 

Rule  I.  Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the  last 
syllable,  ending  in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  double  the  final  consonant  before  a  suffix  beginning 
with  a  vowel. 

t  EXAMPLES:    run,  running;  admit,  admitting. 


1  In  a  story,  however,  if  the  dimensions  were  given  at  all,  they  would  be  spelled  out. 


CAPITALIZATION  AND  SPELLING  171 

But  note  that  if  the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable  there  is 
no  doubling. 

EXAMPLE:    profit,  profiting. 

Note   also   that   two   vowels   preceding   the   final    consonant 
obviate  the  doubling. 

EXAMPLE:     conceit,  conceited. 

Rule  II.  Final  silent  e  is  generally  dropped  before  a  suffix 
beginning  with  a  vowel  and  retained  before  a  suffix  beginning 
with  a  consonant. 

EXAMPLES:       race,  racing;  hope,  hoping;  arrange,  arrangement. 
EXCEPTIONS:     judgment,  acknowledgment,  abridgment. 

A  further  group  of  exceptions  to  Rule  II  occur  because 
c  and  g  are  generally  hard  before  a,  o,  and  u,  and  soft  before^ 
e,  it  and  y.  In  such  words  as  change  and  peace,  the  addition 
of  able  would,  according  to  Rule  II,  bring  g  and  c  before  a, 
making  these  letters  hard.  To  indicate  the  soft  pronunciation, 
it  is  necessary  to  retain  the  e  at  the  end.  Therefore  we  have 
changeable,  peaceable,  arid  similar  spelling  of  a  few  other  words 
(traceable,  etc.). 

Rule  III.  In  general  there  are  adjectives  ending  in  able 
corresponding  to  nouns  ending  in  ation;  but  if  there  is  no  noun 
ending  in  ation,  the  adjective  ends  in  ible.  In  the  latter  case 
there  is  often  a  noun  ending  in  ibility. 

EXAMPLES:     accusable  (adj.);  accusation  (n.) 

conformable  (adj.);  conformation  (n.) 
admissible  (adj.)     There  is  no  noun  admissation. 
defensible  (adj.)     There  is  no  noun  defensation. 

Rule  IV.  To  avoid  confusion  between  ei  and  ie,  the  follow- 
ing jingle  may  be  helpful: 

/  before  e 

Except  after  c, 

Or  when  sounded  like  a, 

As  in  neighbor  or  weigh. 


172  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

In  other  words,  when  the  sound  is  that  of  a  long  e  (e)  the 
common  spell inur  i-  ie  except  after  c. 

EXAMPLES:    Long  e  after  c  Long  e  in  other  cote* 

conceive  brief  belief  field 

deceive  <  hi.f  relief  yield 

receive  ni<T<«  M<^«-  wield 

Exception  Exceptions 

finiun  -i«T  sri/r  cither          leisure 

weird  n.ithcr        inveigle 

When  the  sound  is  not  long  e,  ei  is  the  ni<»n   UMIU!  spelling. 

EXAMPLES:    Sound  of  long  a  Sound  of  long  t  Short  sounds 

deign                              i^ht  foreign 

vein                          sleight  counterfeit 

rein  heifor 

Tin  TO  are  only  a  few  common  exceptions  having  ie  when  the 
sound  is  not  long  e: 

nd,  kerchief,  mischief,  sieve,  view. 

Rule  V.  Words  of  two  or  more  syllables  rarely  end  in 
double  /;  words  of  one  syllable  rarely  end  in  one  /. 

EXAMPLES:    until,  till;  fulfil,  fill. 

EXCEPTIONS:    foretell,  undersoil,  recall,  misspell. 

Rule  VI.  The  ending  ize  is  more  common  in  America  than 
ise.  The  following  words  are  sometimes  misspelled  because 
they  end  in  the  less  common  way: 

advertise  chastise  demise  supervise 

enfranchise        compromise       advise  surprise 

EXERCISE  71 

1.  Write  all  the  adjectives  and  nouns  you  know  that  are 
related  to  the  following  verbs  and  verb-roots: 


flex  (bend) 

digest 

invert 

dur  (last) 

fuse 

irritate 

separate 

detest 

limit 

extend 

repress 

damn 

admit 

navigate 

vis  (see) 

accuse 

collect 

calculate 

vary 

negotiate 

CAPITALIZATION  AND  SPELLING  173 

2.  Among  the  exceptions  to  Rule  III  are  the  adjectives 
related  to  the  following  verbs.     Form  the  adjectives. 

teach  break  pay  read  depend 

sale  laugh  eat        •          love  receive 


EXERCISE  72 

1.  Form  the  present  participles  of  the  following  verbs: 

give  sin  bluff  shriek  sit 

play  fan  rough  dine  set 

trace  make  seek  write  lay 

2.  Add  able  to  the  following: 

like  space  place  peace 

trace  plac  (please)          renew  mend 

3.  Are  the  following  words  correctly  spelled? 

advertise  lovable  feasible  abridgment 

salable  lining  weird  placement 

convertible  trimming  leisure  believe 

foretell  skilful  awful  restful 

124.  Learning  the  Troublesome  Word.  The  following  ex- 
ercises contain  lists  of  troublesome  words  which  appear  with  a 
regularity  that  makes  their  mastery  once  and  for  all  impera- 
tive. Avoid  the  feeling  that  some  of  them,  like  until,  are  so 
easily  spelled  that  they  do  not  merit  attention.  Experience 
has  shown  that  little  words  make  more  than  their  share  of 
trouble.  For  instance,  no  and  know,  new  and  knew,  are  con- 
tinually confused.  Bear  in  mind  that  misspelling  a  long  word 
is  often  excused,  but  missing  a  short  and  common  word  is 
regarded  as  evidence  of  incompetency. 

Often  a  pupil,  through  many  failures,  gets  the  idea  that  he 
is  not  a  "natural  speller."  He  even  begins  to  believe  that 
nature  failed  to  equip  him  with  the  ability  to  spell,  and  as  a 
result  he  does  not  try  to  improve.  Sometimes  he  considers 


174 


VOCATIONAL  EN*.  LI  Ml 


the  teacher  unreasonable  in  demanding  that  he  spell  ordinary 
words  correctly.  Usually  such  a  pupil  misspells  one  or  two 
hundred  different  words  persistently  and  spells  all  other  words 
correctly.  Because  the  list  is  somewhat  extended  he  fails  to 
note  that  he  is  misspelling  the  same  word  again  and  again; 
whereas  if  he  were  aware  of  the  great  number  of  times  he  mis- 
spells that  one  word,  he  would  take  the  time  to  learn  it  and 
end  a  series  of  errors.  Six  months  of  careful  study  of  his  own 
errors  will  generally  remove  most  of  the  difficulty. 


EXERCISE  73 


A  prominent  business  firm  at  one  time  employed  the  follow- 
ing list  of  words  in  the  examinations  it  required  of  stenographers. 
Can  you  spell  every  word? 


1.  likelihood 

2.  commensurate 

3.  addicted 

4.  excessive 

5.  descent 

6.  ascertain 

7.  tariff 

8.  schedule 

9.  foreclose 

10.  mortgage 

11.  lien 

1J.  interfere 

13.  legitimate 

14.  grateful 

15.  edition 
10.  petition 

17.  council. 

18.  legibly 

19.  description 

20.  company 

21.  latter 

22.  useful 

23.  device 
iM.  referred 
25.  principal 


26.  stationary 

'27.  library 


29.  canvas 

30.  canvass 

31.  prestige 

32.  lose 

33.  stationery 

34.  loosely 

35.  eligible 

36.  accidentally 

37.  conscientious 

38.  judgment 

39.  accommodate 

40.  concern 

41.  recommend 

42.  congratulate 

43.  imitation 

44.  mahogany 

45.  accrued 

46.  bankruptcy 

47.  rolls 

48.  hysterical 

49.  aisle 

50.  calendars 


51.  measurements 

52.  bulletin 

53.  dissatisfied 

54.  embarrassing 

55.  culpable 

56.  definition 

57.  adequate 

58.  ridiculous 

59.  cargo 

60.  conscience 

61.  attic 

62.  basement 

63.  feasible 

64.  precedent 

65.  annoyance 

66.  anonymous 

67.  deceased 

68.  diseased 

69.  indebtedness 

70.  redeemable 

71.  competitors 

72.  hazard 

73.  expenditure 

74.  extension 

75.  i 


CAPITALIZATION  AND  SPELLING 


EXERCISE  74 


175 


The  following  is  a  list  of  common  words  that  are  very  fre- 
quently misspelled.  Words  mentioned  in  Exercises  73  and 
75-77,  inclusive,  are  here  omitted.  Study  these  words  care- 
fully and  master  the  spelling  of  any  that  have  troubled  you. 


1.  across 

38.  despair 

75.  maintenance 

2.  address 

39.  destruction 

76.  manageable 

3.  all  right 

40.  development 

77.  marriage 

4.  amateur 

41.  difference 

78.  mathematics 

5.  answer 

42.  dining 

79.  meanness 

6.  apart 

43.  disappear 

80.  meant 

7.  apparatus 

44.  disappoint 

K    81.  measles 

8.  appearance 

45.  discipline 

82.  misspell 

9.  approach 

46.  dissipated 

83.  murmur 

10.  argument 

47.  duly 

84.  mystery 

11.  arouse 

48.  etc. 

85.  necessary 

12.  arrangement 

49.  exaggerate 

86.  nickel 

13.  arrival 

50.  excellent 

87.  ninety-ninth 

14.  article 

51.  existence 

88.  noticeable 

15.  autumn 

52.  experience 

89.  oblige 

16.  awful 

53.  fascinate 

90.  occurring 

17.  awkward 

54.  Filipino 

91.  omitted 

18.  bachelor 

55.  foretell 

92.  operate 

19.  baggage 

56.  forty-four 

93.  opportunity 

20.  balance 

57.  gasoline 

94.  optimism 

21.  barbarous 

58.  gauge 

95.  original 

22.  beefsteak 

59.  grammar 

96.  oxygen 

23.  beginning 

60.  humorous 

97.  parallel 

24.  benefiting 

61.  hundred  ths 

98.  paralyze 

25.  brakeman 

62.  incident 

99.  Philippines 

26.  business 

63.  independent 

100.  picnicking 

27.  carriage 

64.  indispensable 

101.  possession 

28.  cemetery 

65.  infinite 

102.  possibly 

29.  chestnut 

66.  insistent 

103.  practical 

30.  clothes 

67.  intelligible 

104.  prairie 

31.  column 

68.  kerosene 

105.  preceding 

32.  committee 

69.  laid 

106.  preference 

33.  concede 

70.  license 

107.  prejudice 

34.  consent 

71.  lightning 

108.  preparation 

35.  convalescent 

72.  liquefy 

109.  privilege 

36.  criticize 

73.  loneliness 

110.  procedure 

37.  definite 

74.  loveliness 

111.  professor 

176 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


11 J.  pumpkin 

113.  pursue 

114.  questionnaire 

115.  reference 

116.  rhythm 

117.  safety 

118.  sandwich 

119.  Saturday 
I-'M.  sentence 

121.  separate 

122.  shepherd 

123.  similar 

124.  sincerely 

125.  solemn 


126.  sophomore 

127.  specimen 

128.  speech  (but  speak) 

129.  spoonfuls 

130.  succeed 

131.  sufficient 

132.  superintendent 

133.  supersede 

134.  tassel 

135.  together 

136.  truly 

137.  Tuesday 

138.  turkey 

139.  twelfth 


140.  tyranny 

141.  umbrella 

142.  usually 

143.  vaccinate 

144.  vegetable 

145.  vengeance 

146.  vertical 
117.  villain 

148.  visible 

149.  weather 

150.  Wednesday 

151.  which 

152.  woolly 

153.  yacht 


EXERCISE  76 


Learn  to  spell  the  following  words  that  are  often  confused. 
Use  each  in  a  sentence  or  phrase  to  make  sure  that  you  know 
the  meaning. 


accept — to  take 
except — to  leave  out 

affect — to  act  on 

effect — (n.)  result,  (v.)  accomplish 

angel — a  heavenly  being 
angle — a  corner 

auger — a  tool  for  boring 
augur — to  predict  or  indicate 
It  augurs  ill. 

base — (n.)  the  bottom,  (a.)  vile 
bass — a  deep  tone l 

beside — at  the  side  of 
besides — in  addition  to 

brake — a  device  to  stop  a  vehicle 
break — to  destroy 

canvas — cloth 

canvass — to  sell  from  house  to  house 


advice — noun 
advise — verb 

altar — in  a  church 
alter — to  change 

ascent — a  climb 
assent — to  agree  to 

bare — uncovered 

bear — (v.)  to  carry, (n.)  an  animal 

berth— a  bed 

birth — beginning  of  life 

born — brought  into  tHe  world 
borne — carried 

cannon — a  gun 
canon — a  law 

The  canons  of  the  church. 

capital— -the  chief  city,  money 
capitol — a  government  building 


1  Bass  (with  a  short  a)  is  the  name  of  a  fish. 


CAPITALIZATION  AND  SPELLING 


177 


ceiling — -covering  of  a  room 
sealing — closing  up  tight 

choose — present  tense 
chose — past  tense 

coarse — not  fine 

course — ground  traversed 

complement — that  which  completes 
compliment — praise 

creak — to  make  a  noise 
creek — a  small  stream 

deceased — dead 
diseased — ill 

device — noun 
devise — verb 

emigrant — one  who  leaves  a  country 
immigrant— one   who   arrives   in   a 
country 

faint — weak 

feint — a  mock  attack 

farther — applied  to  distance 
further — applied  to  logical.relation 
I  would  say  further  that  it  is 
farther  than  you  realize. 

formally — according  to  form 
formerly — previously 

gilt — golden 

guilt — state  of  having  committed 


choir — a  group  of  singers 
quire — 24  sheets  of  paper 

chord — in  music 
cord — a  string  or  rope 

colonel — an  officer 
kernel — meat  of  a  nut 

council — a  body  of  men 
counsel — an  advisor,  or  advice 

currant — a  fruit 

current — the  flow  of  a  stream 

desert — a  desolate  place 

dessert — the  last  course  at  a  meal 

dyeing — coloring 
dying — giving  up  life 

emigration — going  from  a  country 
immigration — coming  to  a  country 

faker — one  who  swindles    (slang) 
fakir — a    Mohammedan    religious 
devotee 

finally — at  last 
finely — in  small  parts 

gait — manner  of  walking 
gate — an  opening  in  a  fence 

grisly — horrible 
grizzly — grayish 


EXERCISE  76 


Learn  the  meaning  and  the  spelling  of  the  following  words. 
Use  each  in  a  sentence  or  a  phrase. 


heal — to  make  well 
heel — hind  part  of  foot 

hew — to  cut 
hue — color 


hear — to  perceive  sound 
here — at  this  place   • 

hoard — to  store  up  selfishly 
horde — a  wild  multitude 


178 


VOCATIONAL  ENQLISH 


impassable — not  to  be  paused 
impassible — reserved 

knew — past  tense  of  know 
new — not  old 

later— used  of  time 
latter — used  in  reference 

lesson — to  make  less 

lesson — something  to  be  learned 

marten — an  animal   (one  ot 


martin — a  bird  (one  of  the  swal- 
lows) 

miner — one  who  mines 
minor — one  under  age 

pendant — a  hanging  jewel  ornament 
pendent — hanging 


lo — to  go  before 
proceed — to  continue 


prophecy — (n.)  a  prediction 
prophesy — (v.)  to  predict 

*  quiet — still 
quite — entirely 

real — genuine 

reel — a  revolving  device 


right — correct 

rite — a  ceremony 

write — to  put  words  on  paper 

sleight — skill  (sleight  of  hand) 
slight — small 

their — possessive  of  they 
there — an  adverb  of  place 


ingenious — clever  at  contriving 
ingenuous — frank 

know — to  understand 
no — not  any 

laid — (v.*)  to  conduct,  (n.)  a  metal 
led — past  tense  of  lead  (v.) 

loose — adjective 
Imp     iiili 

meat — flesh 

meet — (a.)  proper,   (y.)  to  come 

together 
mete — measure 

'peace — freedom  from  strife 
piece-^a  portion  or  fragment 

pillar—a  column 
pillow — a  cushion 

principal — (adj.)  first 

principle — (n.)   essence,   primary, 

element 

(Principal  is  a  noun  when  it 
means  principal  teacher  or  prin- 
cipal sum.) 

-propose — to  suggest  to  others 
purpose — intention 

rabbet — the  groove  on  matched 

lumber 
rabbit — hare 

receipt — acknowledgment  of  re- 
ceiving 

recipe — a  formula,  or  list  of  in- 
gredients 

road — a  street 

rode — past  tense  of  ride 

rowed — past  tense  of  row 

stationary — not  moving 
stationery — writing  material 

therefor — for  it 
therefore — consequent  1  y 


CAPITALIZATION  AND  SPELLING 


179 


to — a  preposition 
too — an  adverb 
two — a  number 

weak — feeble 
week — seven  days 


ware — a  class  of  material 
wear — to  be  dressed  in 
where — a  question  of  place 


EXERCISE  77 


The  following  words  are  often  misspelled  because  they  are 
mispronounced.  Write  a  phrase  or  short  sentence  containing 
each.  Pronounce  the  words  carefully. 


accidentally — not  accidently 
aeroplane  (now  often  airplane — not 
'"  aereoplane  or  areoplane 
arctic,  antarctic — not  artic,  antartic 
asked  (past  tense) — not  ask 
athletic — not  athaletic  or  atheletic 
boundary — not  boundry 
brethren — not  brethern 
casualty — not  casuality 
children — not  childern 
February — not  Febuary 
forward — not  foward 
government — not  goverment     • 
grievous — not  grievious  or  grevious 
height — not  heighth 
incidentally — not  ineidently 
irrelevant — not  irrevelant 
laboratory — not  labratory  or  labatory 
larynx — not  larnyx 
library — not  libary 
lightened — not  lightninged 
meningitis — not  mengitis 
militarism — not  militaryism 


mischievous — not  mischievious 
Niagara — not  Niagra 
nominative — not  nomitive 
occasionally — not  occasionly 
particularly — not  particurly 
partner— not  pardner 
perambulate — not  preambulate 
percolator — not  perculator  * 

personally — not  personly 
perspiration — not  prespiration 
pronunciation — not  pronounciation 
recognize — not  reconize 
repetition — not  repitition 
ridiculous — not  rediculous 
sacrilegious — not  sacreligious 
specialty — hot  speciality 
studying — not  studing 
suggestion — not  sujjestion 
superfluous — not  superfulous 
surprised — not  suprised 
temperament — not  temperment 
while,    whether,    etc. — not    wile, 
wether,  etc. 


QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  X 

1.  Can  you  give  two  general  principles  of  syllabication? 

2.  What  is  the  general  law  concerning  the  breaking  of  a  word  at  the 
end  of  the  line? 

3.  What  special  danger  must  be  considered  in  thus  breaking  a  word? 

4.  What  are  the  general  laws  of  hyphenization? 

5.  Name  some  words  that  are  often  wrongly  combined. 


180  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

6.  All  combinations  ending  in  certain  syllables  are  written  \\ithout 
a  break.    What  are  these  syllables? 

7.  What  is  the  difference  between  already  and  all  ready  f 

8.  Is   the  following   correct?    "Sometime  I  want  you  to  give  some 
time  to  this  book.*' 

9.  When  are  numbers  spelled  out.' 

10.  Why  is  it  that  when   you  add  able  to  blame  you  get  blamable,  but 
when  you  add  able  to  trace  you  get  traceable? 

1 1 .  Why  is  benefiting  spelled  with  one  tt 

12.  What  is  the  "J  rule"  (p.  172)? 

13.  Why  do  many  people  come  to  believe  they  cannot  "learn  to  spdi  ' 
(p.  173)? 

14.  Do  you  ever  use  any  of  the  wrong  spellings  mentioned  in  1  •: 
cise  77? 


CHAPTER  XI 
SPOKEN  ENGLISH 

125.  Faults  in  American  Speech.  American  speech  and  the 
American  speaking  voice  are  severely  criticized  in  both  Europe 
and  America.  Slovenly,  coarse,  grating,  lazy,  high-pitched,  and 
mush-mouthed  are  some  of  the  adjectives  applied  to  our  oral 
expression. 

We  are  all  too  likely  to  regard  the  tone  of  our  voices  as 
inherited  along  with  the  color  of  our  eyes,  and  therefore  make 
little  effort  to  soften  the  sound  or  lower  the  pitch — a  failure 
which  causes  much  criticism.  But  we  can  improve  our  speak- 
ing voices.  We  can  speak  more  slowly  and  more  distinctly;  if 
we  do,  our  voices  will  become  softer  and  less  irritating  to  our 
hearers. 

Again,  our  utterance  is  too  often  incomplete.  This  may  be 
due  partly  to  the  American  spirit  of  hurry — a  demand  for 
results,  regardless  of  method.  We  utter  parts  of  sentences  only 
and  do  not  finish  our  words.  Often  we  omit  entire  syllables. 
In  the  earlier  days  when  competition  was  limited  or  lacking, 
and  when  opportunities  were  so  great  that  even  men  of  slight 
ability  could  succeed,  slipshod  speech  was  not  the  handicap  it 
now  is.  But  America  is  changing.  It  is  no  longer  easy  to 
secure  land  at  a  few  dollars  an  acre,  or  to  start  a  store  in  a  town 
destined  in  one  generation  to  grow  into  a  city.  Most  of  us  can 
hope  to  prosper  now  only  by  means  of  thoroughness  and  care 
in  little  things.  We  are  finding  that  our  speech  is  inadequate. 

The  problem  is  complicated  by  the  many  foreign  elements 
in  our  population.  English  has  certain  sounds  that  are  lack- 
ing in  some  other,  languages,  and  which  are  naturally  difficult 
for  people  who  speak  those  languages.  The  boy  or  girl  who 
comes  to  an  English-speaking  school  from  a  home  where  it  is 
necessary  to  use  some  pther  language  in  order  that  the  parents 
may  take  part  in  the  conversation,  needs  patient  drill  and 
patient  practice — not  ridicule.  The  mistakes  of  such  a  pupil 

181 


182  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

are  far  more. excusable  than  those  of  one  who  reflects  the  in- 
fluence of  "Bowery  slang/1  as  in  thoid  and  goil  and  youse.  But 
every  pupil  can  make  some  improvement  in  his  spoken  English. 

126.  Enunciation.     First,  cut  every  syllable  clearly.  Begin 
with  imrticnlarly.     Don't  pronounce  it  pai /  -///.     Practice 

this  word  until  you  can  run  the  sounds  through  without  put  t  inir 
undue  stress  upon  the  lar.  Can  you  pronounce  dictionary,  accent- 
ing die  and  allowingjhe  shun-a  and  rie  equal  stress?  Pronounce 
indissoluble.  (You  probably  can't  unless  you  have  had  youi 
attention  called  to  it  before.)  Pronounce  can't  you  several 
times,  keeping  the  two  words  distinct.  (There  is  no  ch  in 
these  words.)  The  following  exercise  contains  a  number  of 
expressions  that  are  similarly  mistreated  in  common  speech. 
Practice  them  all. 

EXERCISE  78 

Speak  the  following,  slowly  at  first,  then  at  usual  speed: 

how  do  you  do  go  on 

what  do  you  would  have 

what  did  you  might  have 

did  you  indemnity 

can't  you  do  it  representative 

where  did  you  government  (not  goverment) 

governor  athletic  (not  ath<-! 

drowned  library 

superintendent  nominative  (not  nomitive) 

gentleman  adjective  (not  ajetive) 

gentlemen  probably  (not  probly) 

arctic  surprised 

salary  occasionally 

children  larynx 

grandfather  asked 

usually  perhaps 

American  (not  A  in  urikin)  K>ral 

is  he  here  laboratory 

particularly  irrelevant 

that  will  do  separate 

February  (not  Febuary)  diamond 

last  night  idea  (not  idee) 

hundred  indisputable 

cardinal  history  (three  syllables'. 


SPOKEN  ENGLISH  183  - 

127.  Purity  of  Vowel  Sound.     After  indistinct  enunciation, 
impure  vowel  sounds  are  probably  the  most  objectionable 
element  in  our  pronunciation.     The  sounds  discussed  in  the 
following  sections  need  constant  attention.     It  is  not  enough 
to  note  them  in  passing.     Our  habits  of  speech  have  been  with 
us  many  years  and  are  not  easily  changed.     Much  good  can  be 
done  by  criticism  among  the  group  of  classmates  with  whom  you 
associate,  but  if  any  real  progress  is  to  be  made  against  the 
customs  of  years,  it  must  come  through  continual  self-correc- 
tion. 

128.  Long  u  and  Long  oo.     There  is  a  marked  difference 
between  the  vowel  sounds  in  mule  and  moon.     The  former  is 
long  u  (u);  the  latter,  long  double  o  (oo).     Long  u  has  a  sugges- 
tion of  a  y  before  it,  as  if  myule  were  the  spelling.     Many 
people  find  the  insertion  of  this  y  sound  difficult,  particularly 
after  t  and  d.    Thus  Tuesday  becomes   Toosday    and   duties 
becomes  dooties.     Or  an  exaggerated  attempt  to  secure  the 
proper  pronunciation  results  in  Choosday  and  juties.    A  long 
series  of  words  ending  in  tute  are  very  commonly  mispronounced. 

EXAMPLES  : 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

institoot  institute  (tyute) 

constitootion  constitution  (tyution) 

/ 

The  word  new  is  often  pronounced,  especially  in  the  Middle 
West,  as  if  it  were  noo.     The  correct  sound  resembles  niew. 

Notice,  however,  that  the  following  words  are  often  wrong- 
ly given  the  sound  of  long  u: 

conduit  (kon'dit)  coupon  (koo'pon) 

ennui  (on'we)  acoustics  (a  koo'stics) 

A  number  of  words  that  should  have  the  double  o  sound 
are  often  mispronounced.  Note  the  following  correct  pro- 
nunciations: 

soot  (not  siit)  roof  (not  roof)  coop  (not  coop) 

hoof  (not  hoof)          route  (root,  not  rowt)  root  (not  root) 

spook  (not  spook)     bouquet  (bookay,  not  boulevard  (boo) 
bokay) 


184  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  70 

Pronounce  the  following  words  correctly: 

due  stupid  revenue 

suit  reduce  Tuesday 

tube  avenue  education 

duke  student  magnitude 

tune  culinary  nutriment 

tutor  accurate  contumely 

tumor  institute  bituminous 

129.  Short  o.    A  disagreeable  use  of  various  sounds  for 
short  o  (d)  has  received  much  attention  from  teachers.    Many 
people  pronounce  it  as  if  it  were  aw.    Examples  are  hog  and 
J<*hn,  pronounced  wrongly  as  if  they  were  hawg  and  Jawn. 
The  better  pronunciation  resembles  o  in  hot. 

EXERCISE  8O 

How  should  the  following  words  be  pronounced?  Pronounce 
them  rapidly,  giving  o  the  short  sound. 

dog  (not  "dawg")  forest  often  gloss 

hog  for. -luii  office  John 

coffee  forehead  doril*-  from 

coral  fossil  globular  frost 

130.  Short  a,   Short  e,   and   Short  i.     Pronounce:  catch, 
catcher;  fresh  (not  frush);  since  (not  sence).     (But  pretty  is 
pronounced  pritty,  and  been  is  bin.) 

131.  The  Sound  of  wh.     In  many  sections  of  the  country, 
probably  because  of  the  influence  of  the  speech  of  the  north 
European,  we  find  people  unable  to  pronounce  wh   (really 
pronounced  hw).    Wheat  is  called  weat;  what,  wat;  and  when, 
wen.    A  story  is  told  of  a  boy  who  enunciated  this  remarkable 
sentence:    "He  hit  his  old  wite  horse  a  wack  with  a  walebone 
wip  and  he  went  down  the  wite  road  and  the  weels  just  wizzed." 
This  error  of  tongue  has  led  to  a  confusion  of  the  written  forms, 
where,  were,  and  wear.    The  trouble  may  be  corrected  by  the 
following  method :   Pronounce  ' 'huh  weat"  slowly.     Then  in- 
crease the  speed  until  the  two  sounds  become  one  in  wheat. 


SPOKEN  ENGLISH  185 

EXERCISE  81 

(a)  Pronounce  these  sentences,  filling  in  the  blanks  with 
where,  were,  or  wear: 

1. you  when  we  decided  to our  new  uniforms? 

2 . you you  could your  raincoat? 

3.  He  would  not his  working  clothes the  ladies 

(b)  Pronounce  the  following  words : 

soot  wheat  ennui  where 

bouquet  coffee  rout  wear 

conduit  tutor   .  route  due 

John  boulevard  fossil  root 

(c)  Speak  the  following  sentences  at  your  normal  speed: 

1.  What  white  wheat  did  you  mean? 

2.  Where  did  you  put  the  bouquet?     In  the  office? 

3.  John  said  that  representative  government  might  have  produced  suf- 

ficient revenue. 

4.  Can't  you  find  indemnity  in  any  dictionary  in  the  library? 

5.  Because  the  soot  in  the  bituminous  coal  affected  his  larynx,  he  instituted 

a  suit  against  the  American  Wire  Wheel  Company. 

132.  Pronunciation  Practice.  The  following  lists  contain 
only  words  that  you  are  likely  to  meet  in  conversation  or 
ordinary  reading.  They  are  not  lists  of  "puzzle  words"  or 
"catch  words/7  but  words  that  you  ought  to  know  how  to  pro- 
nounce and  how  to  use.  In  some  cases,  doubtless,  there  is 
disagreement  among  dictionary  makers  regarding  the  pro- 
nunciation; but  this  difference  of  opinion  must  not  be  an  excuse 
for  passing  by  the  entire  topic.  In  every  case  the  pronuncia- 
tion here  given  has  good  authority,  and  in  only  a  few  cases  is 
there  disagreement  among  authorities. 

EXERCISE  82 

Pronounce  and  use  the  following  words: 

accent'  (verb)  accented  syllable 

ac'cent  (noun)  place  the  accent 

accll  mate  become  acclimated  in  Colorado 

ad'mirable  admirable  work 


1st; 


\u(  ATIONAL  ENGLISH 


adult' 

again  (ag£nt  not  agdn) 

alias  (a'li  as) 

ally  (&1  to') 

alterca'tion  (preferred  to  awl) 

amenable 

apparft  tus 

•tp'pUcable 

:i'pn'  !TCd) 

(ark  tic) 
as'phalt  (fait) 

aspirant  (preferred  to  as'pirani) 
attache*  (at  ta  shft') 
b&de 

bayou  (bl  65) 
because  (kaws,  never  kuz) 
been  (bin) 
blas6  (bla  z&') 
blatant,  (bla'tant) 
bronchitis 
brooch  (brOch) 
buoy  (boi) 

casualty  (kazl/  u  ftltl;  never  casuality) 
catch  (never  A-<7cA) 
char^  d'affaires  (sh&rzhft'daffar') 
chas  tisement 
clique  (kleek) 
c6l'umn  (not  colyumc) 
com'bative 
com'batant 
comp'arable 
condd'lence  Gens) 
connoisseur  (k&n'nls  sur') 
consplr'acy  (not  splr) 
contrast'  (verb) 
con'trast  (noun) 
con  versa  nt 

coup  d'etat  (koo'da  ta') 
coupon  (koo,  not  ku) 
courtier  (kort  ySr) 
creek  (never  crick) 
data  (never  ddtta) 
dec'ade  (deck) 


an  adult  person 

come  again 

alias  Charles  Barnes 

army  of  the  Allies 

noisy  altercation 

amenable  to  discipline 

«  h« miral  apparatus 

applicable  in  this  case 

apricot  pie 

Arctic  Ocean 

asphalt  streets 

aspirant  to  honors 

attache*  to  the  French  Embassy 

bade  adieu 

rivers  and  bayous 

because  he  could 

have  been 

l.l:i>.'  mien 

harsh  and  blatant 

many  names  of  diseases  end  in  liu 

gold  brooch 

floating  buoy 

casualty  list 

catch  a  ball 

U.  8.  charge*  d'affaires  in  Mexico 

severe  chastisement 

ument  by  a  clique 
add  the  column 
combative  nature 
two  combatants  fought 
comparable  to  sunshine 
letter  of  condolence 
art  connoisseur 
Pontiac's  conspiracy 
contrast  colors 
contrast  in  color 
conversant  with  history 
coup  d'etat  of  Napoleon 
interest  coupons 
courtiers  of  a  king 
cross  the  creek 
these  (never  this)  data 
the  past  decade 


SPOKEN  ENGLISH 


187 


def  icit 

de'pot  (preferred  to  day) 

des  picable 

des'ultory 

disputable  (preferred  to  disputable) 


deficit  of  a  thousand  dollars 
munition  depot 
despicable  actions 
desultory  firing 
facts  not  disputable 


either  (ether;  th  voiced;  ither,  in  America,  is  generally  thought  affected) 
elm  (not  el-lum)  an  old  elm  tree 

err  (like  her)  erring  ways 


EXERCISE  83 


Pronounce  and  use  the  following  words: 


every  (three  syllables) 

exigency  (not  eggs) 

ex'quisite  (never  exquis'ite) 

expo  nent 

fagade  (fa  sahd   or  fa  sad  ) 

February  (not  Febuary) 

fern  inlne  (not  nine) 

fidelity  (not  fid) 

finale  (fin  ah'la) 

finance'  (fin;  never  finance) 

forbade    (bad) 

formidable  (never  accent  mid) 

gape  (gap  is  colloquial) 

gen  ial  (yal) 


gSn'uIne  (never  Ine) 

gigan'tic  (uotjan) 

G6d  (never  Gawd) 

g6n  dola 

government  (not  goverment) 

gran'ary  (not  grain) 

gratis  (never  use  with  free) 

griev  ous  (never  three  syllables) 

har'ass 

heinous  (ha/nus) 

his  tory  (three  syllables) 

hos'pitable 

hypoc'risy  (not  hy) 

illus'trate  (verb) 

illustra  tion  (noun) 

im  pious 


every  day 
exigencies  arise 
exquisite  carving 
exponent  of  socialism 
fagade  of  Rheims 

feminine  gender 

fidelity  to  ideals 

play  the  finale 

high  finance 

forbade  his  going 

a  formidable  army 

to  gape  in  astonishment 

genial  disposition 

Genoa,  Italy 

genuine  diamonds  (three  syllables) 

gigantic  liner 

gondolas  of  Venice 

government  of  Illinois 

oats  granary 

the  service  is  gratis 

grievous  hurt 

to  harass  the  enemy 

heinous  sins 

history  of  America 

a  hospitable  reception 

act  of  hypocrisy 

illustrate  a  book 

impious  person 


188 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


incog'nlto 

incom'  parable 

in'dicatory 

inex'orable 

inex  piable 

inqulr'y  (notice  the  accent) 

interesting 

inveigle  (inveigle) 

in'ventory 

irre'v  ocable 

Italian  (short  i) 

joust  (just) 


l&m'entable 

lichen  (ll'ken) 

lit'erature  (never  toor  or  choor) 

memoir  (mCm  war) 

meningl'tis  (four  syllables) 

mercantile  (til  or  til) 

mis'chicvous  (rus,  not  vius) 

miscon'strue  (also  misconstrue') 

muse'um  (ze'um) 

nape 

New  Or'le  ans  (Arfl,  not  Nod) 

nom'inative  (not  nomitive) 

6ccult' 


the  emperor  incognito 
incomparable  music 
indicatory  of  power 
inexorable  anger 
inexpiable  crime 
make  inquiry 
interesting  scenes 
inveigle  one  into  wrong 
take  inventory  of  stock 
irrevocable  actions 
Italian  emigrants 
to  see  the  knights  joust 
juvenile  court 
lamentable  ignorance 
lichens  on  the  rock 
American  literature 
memoirs  of  Grant 
spinal  meningitis 
mercantile  company 
mischievous  boys 
misconstrue  a  statement 
Field  Museum 
nape  of  the  neck 
New  Orleans,  La. 
nominative  case 
occult  influence 


EXERCISE  84 


Pronounce  and  use  the  following  words: 


6f 'fice  (not  awfuss) 

often  (the  t  is  silent) 

Gleomar'garlne  (like  Margaret) 

o'veralls  (not  halls) 

papy'rus  (pi) 

partner  (never  pardner) 

pa'tron 

per'emptory  (per'emp  to  rjO 

phonics 

plait  (pleet) 

preced'ence  (noun) 

precedent  (adjective) 

prfc'edent  (noun) 

prefate 


office  boy 
to  come  often 
butter  and  oleomargarine 
overalls  and  trousers 
writing  on  papyrus 
business  partner 
friends  and  patrons 
peremptory  command 
phonics  of  a  language 
plaits  in  a  skirt 
takes  precedence 
precedent  to  his  going 
establish  a  precedent 
churchmen  and  prelates 


SPOKEN  ENGLISH 


189 


pretense 

pretty  (pritty) 

prb'cess  (not  pro) 

protege  (pro  ta  zha  ) 

puerile  (pu  er  XI) 

pur  port 

quay  (kee) 

rapine  (rap'in) 

recess 

regime  (ra  zhem  ) 

rSg'ular  (not  regler) 

research 

resource 

resume  (ra  zu  ma  ) 

reveille  (re1  val  ya;  in  U.  S.  Army, 

rev  a  le  ) 
robust' 
romance' 

roof  (sound  as  in  boot) 
salmon  (sam  un) 
salve  (sav) 
satiety  (sa  ti'e"  ty) 
se'nile  (but  senil'ity) 
since  (never  sense) 
sleek  (slick  is  vulgar) 
sloven  (sluv  en) 
s6l  ace 

squalid  (skw6lid) 
squa/lor 
status 
sts'lid 

subtle  (suttle) 
suite  (sweet) 
tep'id 

ticklish  (not  tickelish) 
vaga'ry 
vaudeville  (vod'vil;  never  vaw) 


viscount  (v!  count) 

wheat  (not  weet) 

whether  (differs  from  weather) 

where  (not  wear) 

yeast  (yest;  sound  the  y) 

zo&l'ogy  (four  syllables) 


make  pretense 

pretty  faces 

patented  process 

a  protege  of  Saint  Gaudens 

puerile  affectation  in  speech 

purport  of  the  message 

the  boats  along  the  quay 

rapine,  pillage,  and  murder 

recess  time 

ancient  regime 

regular  verbs 

research  in  chemistry 

resources  of  a  bank 

a  resume  of  the  report 

bugles  sound  reveille 

robust  boy 

a  modern  romance 

roof  of  a  house 

Columbia  River  salmon 

put  salve  on  a  wound 

to  eat  to  satiety 

senile  debility 

since  yesterday 

the  cat's  sleek  fur 

slovenly  homes 

seek  solace 

squalid  huts 

squalor  and  decay 

the  status  of  the  case 

a  stolid  countenance 

a  subtle,  unseen  influence 

suite  of  rooms 

tepid  water 

ticklish  business 

vagaries  of  fate 

a  vaudeville  entertainment 

veracious  witnesses 

lords  and  viscounts 

wheat  and  corn 

whether  or  not 

where  and  when 

yeast  for  the  bread 

zoology  and  botany 


I!»N  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  XI 

1  What  are  some  of  the  faults  of  American  speech?  How  can  they 
be  eradicated? 

2.  How  does  America  of  today  differ  from  the  America  of  a  generation 
or  two  ago  with  regard  to  speech  requirements? 

•">.  What  is  the  difference  between  enunciation  and  pronunciation? 

4.  Is  poor  enunciation  the  result  of  laziness  or  of  hurry  or  of  both? 

5.  What  is  the  difference  in  sound  between  oo  and  tif    Pronounce 
multitude,  food. 

6.  How  can  one  learn  to  pronounce  correctly  wheat,  where,  etc.? 

7.  Do  you  know  the  diacritical  markings?    If  not,  consult  a  good 
dictionary  and  familiarize  yourself  with  these  very  necessary  symbols  now. 


CHAPTER  XII 


EXERCISES  FOR  REVIEW 

This  chapter  consists  of  a  series  of  exercises  in  review  of  the 
previous  chapters  of  the  book.  The  exercises  are  intentionally 
varied  in  the  hope  of  cultivating  alertness  to  all  kinds  of  bad 
English.  Reasons  for  every  correction  should  be  given.  If 
you  do  not  understand  the  trouble,  in  each  case  go  back  to 
the  text  and  master  the  principle.  "There  is  no  royal  road  to 
geometry,"  said  Euclid  to  the  prince  of  Egypt;  neither  is  there 
an  easy  road  to  correct  English  or,  for  that  matter,  to  any- 
thing worth  while.  Only  the  penetrating  force  of  your  own 
mind  will  determine  the  degree  of  your  success.  Resolve  now 
to  understand  the  reasons  for  every  correction  you  can  make 
in  Exercises  85  to  100. 

EXERCISE  85 

Which  of  the  alternative  forms  is  correct  in  each  of  the 
following  sentences? 

1.  Every  person  should  be  proud  of  (himself,  themselves)  and  conscious 

of  a  power  to  do.     (Sec.  59.) % 

2.  With  her  and  (7,  me)  the  case  is  somewhat  different.     (Sec.  64.) 

3.  The  lawyers  proved  beyond  doubt  that  it  was  (him,  he)  who  forced  the 

note.     (Sec.  62.) 

4.  They  chose  alternately1  (he,  him)  and  (7,  me)  to  stand  guard.     (Sec. 

64.) 

5.  He  (did,  done)  his  work  (quick  and  clean,  quickly  and  cleanly2).  (Sees. 

36,  70.) 

6.  It  was  only  (him,  his)  having  been  warned  that  saved  Tom  and  (7, 

me).     (Sees.  63,  64.) 

7.  It  (don't,  doesn't)  run  now  (like,  as)  it  used  to.     (Sees.  54,  79  d.) 

8.  He  looks  (like  he  was,  as  if  he  were)  discouraged.     (Sees.  50,  79d.) 

9.  New  York  is  not  (as,  so)  large  as  London.     (Sec.  79f.) 

10.  I  had  already  (swam,  swum)  the  river  and  returned  the  case  back  to 
its  owner.     (What  other  trouble  is  there  in  this  sentence?) 

'Watch  your  pronunciation. 

-There  arc  two  words  spelled  cleanly.     Use  them  both  in  sentences. 

J91 


192  VOCATIONAL  ENGLI  s  1 1 

EXERCISE  86 

Which  of  the  following  sentences  are1  right?    Correct  those 
that  are  wrong  and  give  reasons. 

1.  Each  of  them  were  doing  all  they  could  to  save  them. 

2.  Use  three  spoonsful  of  water  to  one  of  flour. 
•t.  1  like  Dicken's  David  Copper  field  exceedingly. 

4.  He  was  sick  so  I  had  to  take  his  place. 

5.  The  alumni  of  Vassar  had  a  meeting  with  we  D  Ks.     (Three  errors.) 

6.  The  forget-me-not's  are  blooming  there  today. 

7.  He  made  pictures  of  the  fungi  with  both  foci  of  his  lens. 

8.  There's  two  sides  to  every  question. 

9.  I  could  of  done  it  but  I  was  to  tired.     (Two  errors — bad  ones,  too.) 
10.  Have  a  pencil  and  paper  ready  so  that  it1  can  be  used  for  taking  orders. 


EXERCISE  87 

Correct  the  following: 

1.  When  was  Greece  and  Rome  great? 

2.  Children  should  be  allowed  to  see  motion  pictures  if  they  are  good. 

3.  Why  don't  the  rich  man  pay  his  taxes? 

4.  The  k'ttle  car  with  two  of  it's  tires  flat  finished  first. 

5.  Be  sure  and  visit  Mary  when  you  are  to  Boston. 

6.  There  was  an  argument  as  to  whom  should  pay  the  bills. 

7.  When  a  person  grows  old  they  like  to  have  their  own  way. 

8.  A  person  should  not  be  of  a  nature,  which  when  anyone  criticizes 

them  they  get  angry. 
0.  We  couldn't  hardly  see  the  road. 
10.  He  acts  like  he  owned  the  earth. 


EXERCISE  88 

Some  of  the  following  are  right.    Which  are  they?    What 
is  wrong  with  the  others?    Correct  them. 

1.  I  think- Henry  is  queer;  he  don't  seem  to  notice  his  friends. 

2.  As  soon  as  I  had  eaten  the  cake  I  felt  sick. 

3.  'this  is  one  of  the  five  best  books  which  has  come  ou^  this  year 

4.  It  was  the  supremest  effort  of  his  life. 

5.  If  there  was  only  a  bridge  at  the  river! 


!Should  ore  be  chanced  to  itt 


EXERCISES  FOR  REVIEW  193 

6.  It  was  not  Murphy  but  I  who  finally  got  the  job. 

7.  One  of  the  grandest  sights  in  the  world  are  the  Pyramids. 

8.  This  data  must  go  to  the  printer  immediately.     (We  have  only  two 

adjectives   that  are  inflected  for  number;  one  of  them   is  used 
,    wrongly  here.) 

9.  We  left  that  night  on  one  of  the  finest  steamers  on  the  lake  and  was, 

by  daylight,  within  sight  of  Milwaukee. 
10.  He  blamed  it  on  his  brother. 


EXERCISE  89 

Which  is  the  correct  word  in  parentheses  in  each  case  below? 
Why? 

1.  Paris  is  not  (as,  so)  large  as  London. 

2.  Either  of  the  men  (is,  are)  good  in  (their,  his)  own  department. 

3.  When  a  person  has  hated  much  (they,  he)  (show,  shows^  it  in  (their,  his) 

face. 

4.  Which  is  the  (largest,  larger),  Cleveland  or  Cincinnati? 

5.  (Wasn'tj  weren't)  you  at  school  today? 

6.  What's  the  use  of  (us,  our)  keeping  a  horse? 

7.  I  (lay,  laid)  down  yesterday  after  lunch. 

8.  (She,  her)  and  her  sister  were  the  only  one's  I  knew.     (Find  an  error 

in  a  plural.) 

9.  A  large  number  of  mules  (was,  were)  shipped  to  Europe. 
10.  I  had  never  (swum,  swam)  in  the  ocean  before. 


EXERCISE  9O 

Which  of  the  following  are  wrong?     Why?     Make  correc- 
tions where  they  are  necessary. 

1.  I  was  so  scared  I  couldn't  remember  what  my  name  was.     (Has  the 

name  changed?) 

2.  I  dislike  to  scold  you  more  than  any  one.     (Meaning?) 

3.  I  expect  you  are  too  busy  to  read  the  paper. 

4.  He  dove  off  of  the  pier  in  six  foot  of  water.     (Three  errors.) 

5.  "Can  I  take  your  pencil?"     I  asked  him,  and  he  said  I  could. 

6.  The  feet  of  a  cat  are  much  softer  than  a  dog. 

7.  Don't  forget  to  thoroughly  analyze  each  sentence.     (Sec.  55.) 

8.  I  dislike  those  kind  of  people. 

9.  He  criticized  Mary  and  I  for  loosing  the  paper.     (Two  errors.) 
10.  He  signed  the  letter:    Your's  respectively.     (Two  errors.) 


104  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  01 

Fill  the  blanks  with  shall,  witt,  should,  or  would.    Review 
Sections  45  and  46. 

1. you  be  working  tomorrow? 

2.  you  do  me  a  favor? 

3.  "Mr.  Brown look  after  the  east  door,"  said  the  Principal. 

4.  "I  shall  not  go,"  said  Brown  to  Jones.    Jones  reports  to  Smitn. 

"Brown  said  he not  go." 

5.  My  son go  to  school  tomorrow  for  I see  to  it  myself. 

6.  My  niece start  to  school  next  September  and  I take 

pleasure  in  making  things  pleasant  for  her. 

7.  He  assured  me  that  the  price rise. 

8.  I  don't  believe  he ever  be  well  RK 

9.  He  believes  that  he not  be  able  to  meet  us. 

10.  If  I go,  they  would  be  glad. 

EXERCISE  92 

Correct  the  following  and  give  reasons: 

1.  There  is,  at  least  in  most  civilized  countries,  more  women  than  men. 

2.  Like  a  flash  the  animal  had  sprang  from  the  raft  and  swam  the  narrow 

channel. 

3.  I  asked  mother  if  I  could  go  with  Jimmie. 

4.  His  wife  was  whom? 

5.  The  knife  was  carefully  lain  away. 

6.  He  might  employ  only  two  helpers;  accordingly  he  hired  a  bookkeeper 

and  stenographer. 

7.  I  wanted  fudge  so  badly. 

8.  What's  the  French  colors? 

9.  What  sort  of  a  coV  is  that? 

10.  The  man  who  was  dead  was  a  negro.    (Shorten  this.) 

EXERCISE  03 

Make  all  needed  corrections  in  the  following.    Some  of 
them  are  now  correct.    Tell  why. 

1.  They  took  us  to  be  them. 

2.  A  baseball  is  more  nearly  round  than  a  football. 

3.  Let  you  and  me  go  swimming. 

4.  It  was  we  whom  the  officer  saw. 

5.  An  example  of  generosity  is  seen  in  Richard  the  Lion-hearted,  who, 

history  tells  us,  forgave  his  brother  John's  rebellion. 

6.  They  decided  to  raise  the  building  about  seven  inches  higher. 


EXERCISES  FOR  REVIEW  195 

7.  They  wanted  Charlie  and  I  to  play  Indian. 

8.  We  never  worry  now  like  we  used  to  do. 

9.  "Will  you  help  me?"     "Sure." 

10.  Now  you'll  have  to  do  it  all  over  again. 

EXERCISE  94 

Correct  the  following  wherever  necessary: 

1.  Finally  she  laid  down  in  the  water  to  escape  detection. 

2.  Whom  can  I  believe  if  not  him? 

3.  We  read  of  a  king  having  lost  his  throne  through  the  lack  of  a  horse- 

shoe nail. 

4.  Prominent  men  like  you  and  he  cannot  afford  to  be  wrong. 

5.  The  witness  swore  it  was  them,  not  us,  whom  Murphy  saw. 

6.  Take  one  home  for  yourself  and  wife. 

7.  I'll  walk  a  little  way  with  you. 

8.  Everything  from  knives  to  scarves  were  marked  down. 

9.  Potatoes  sold  for  fifty  cents  a  peck. 
10.  Walk  quiet  or  you'll  wake  the  baby. 

EXERCISE  95 

Correct  the  following: 

1.  If  we  win  today  we  will  have  made  it  five  straight. 

2.  I  think  we  will  be  able  to  go. 

3.  I  seen  my  duty  and  I  done  it. 

4.  I  dropped  the  ring  in  the  water. 

5.  You  can't  go  without  he  goes. 

6.  He  found  his  hat  in  back  of  the  dresser. 

7.  The  man  differed  so  violently  from  us  that  we  were  forced  to  part  with 

him  in  London. 

8.  You  can  hire  whoever  you  want  to  do  it. 

9.  He  is  the  tallest  of  the  two  brothers. 
10.  They  chose  me  rather  than  they. 

EXERCISE  96 

Correct  the  following: 

1.  Every  one  in  the  audience  had  tears  in  their  eyes. 

2.  Hamilton  and  Burr  fought  a  dual. 

3.  I  got  a  gun,  a  phonograph,  and  a  pair  of  skates  for  Christmas.    I 

like  the  latter  better. 

4.  I  can  pick  cherries  faster  than  anybody. 

5.  We  felt  kind  a  lonesome  so  Freddie  stayed  with  mama  and  I. 

6.  There  should  be  less  than  three  errors  per  page;  six  are  to  many  for 

there  purpose. 


liu;  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

7.  I  fully  expected  to  have  been  present.    (A  common  error.    Expect- 

ed looks  toward  the  future.    The  infinitive  here  is  perfect  [have]; 
which  way  does  it  look?) 

8.  I  never  saw  anything  as  beautiful  as  them  roses.  (Make  two  changes.) 

0.  The  cup  is  neither  made  of  copper  or  bronze. 

10.  A  dog  is  the  noblest  of  animals.    (Is  another  the  needed?) 

EXERCISE  07 

Write  the  plurals  of  the  following: 

echo  elf  mouse         brother  13  die 

wife  fox          aviator       parenthesis      oasis       zero 

reef  hoof        money        hill  of  fare       thesis      loaf 

EXERCISE  08 

Write  sentences  employing  the  following  words: 

1.  principal  and  principle  1 1 .  canvas  and  canvass 

2.  there  and  th<  ir  12.  compliment  and  complement 

3.  affect  and  effect  (as  a  verb)  13.  farther  and  further 

4.  purpose  (as  a  verb)  and  propose      14.  impassable  and  impassible 

5.  quite  and  quiet  15.  allusion  and  illusion 

6.  advise  and  advice       *  16.  ingenious  and  ingenuous 

7.  devise  and  device  17.  auger  and  augur 

8.  accept  and  except  18.  council  and  counsel 

9.  to  and  too  19.  grisly  and  grizzly 
10.  hung  and  hanged  20.  cannon  and  canon 

EXERCISE  00 

Complete  the  following  words  by  adding  ise  or  ize: 

advert merchand summar compr 

modern surpr —  temper. 

bapt chast enfranc 

real civil magne 

EXERCISE  100 

Form  the  present  participle  of  each  of  the  following  words. 
The  rule  is  to  be  found  in  Section  123,  II,  but  the  starred 
forms  are  exceptions.  Try  to  form  a  rule  for  the  exceptions. 

change          dye*  awe  tie*  hope  encourage 

return  die*  blue  shoe*  hoe*  sing 

agree*  make  ice  tinge*  judge          glue 


PART  TWO 
COMPOSITION— -LETTERS— ADVERTISING 

CHAPTER  XIII 
COMPOSITION  —  ORAL  AND  WRITTEN 

133.  The  Need  of  Practice  in  Composition.     Every  bit  of 
talk  for  a  purpose  and  every  bit  of  writing  for  a  purpose  involves 
composition — the  putting  together  of  ideas  so  that  they  will,  if 
possible,    accomplish    the    desired    purpose.     Effective    self- 
expression  demands,  first  of  all,  the  power  to  use  the  means  of 
expression  correctly;  but  you  may  know  all  the  principles  of 
correct  English  developed  in  the  first  part  of  this  book,  and 
3^et  fail  in  composition  through  lack  of  practice.     It  is  the  pur- 
pose of  this  and  the  following  chapters  to  provide  the  necessary 
practice. 

134.  The  Opportunity  of  Conversation.     Oral  composition — 
talk  for  a  purpose — is  doubtless  the  most  common  kind  of 
composition,  though  too  often  it  is  not  thought  of  as  composition 
at  all.     When  you  are  going  to  make  personal  application  for 
a  position,  do  you  plan  what  you  shall  say  and  how  you  shall 
say  it?     Do  you  try  to  imagine  the  questions  the  employer  will 
ask  you,  and  decide  what  answers  you  can  give  him?     Do  you 
give  thought  to  the  sort  of  impression  you  will  make  upon  him 
by  neatness  of  appearance,  a  self-respecting  but  modest    man- 
ner, a  clear  voice  and  enunciation,  and  correct  English?     These 
are  all  elements  of  successful  oral  composition.      Too  many 
of  us  regard  conversation  as  we  do  water — something  that  is 
useful — even  necessary — but  very  little  prized  because  it  is  free. 
If  we  were  limited  in  the  use  of  words  as  we  are  in  the  spending 
of  dollars,  doubtless  speech  would  be  more  careful  and  therefore 
more  effective.     We  seem  not  to  realize  that  through  conversa- 
tion we  can  do  a  great  deal  for  ourselves.     Conversation,  next 

197 


198  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

to  appearance,  is  our  greatest  test  in  judging  men.  Your  con- 
versation reveals  to  the  world  your  home  conditions,  your 
education,  your  spirit,  your  ability. 

135.  The   Need   of   Self-confidence.     It  was  the  idea  of 
ancient  peoples  that  a  person  was  ill-looking  chiefly  because 
he  knew  himself  to  be  unworthy.    We  hold  this  idea  today  in 
only  a  slightly  different  form.    We  distrust  the  man  of  shift- 
ing eyes  because  his  glance  seems  to  confess  unmanliness.    We 
despise  the  man  who  falters.    But  we  respect  the  man  who  has 
confidence  in  himself;  we  trust  him,  and  when  he  wills  we 
generally  obey  him.    Therefore,  when  you  speak,  try  to  show 
yourself  master  of  what  you  are  saying.    Believe  in  yourself 
and  do  not  entertain  for  a  moment  an  idea  that  others  do  not 
value  you  too.    This  does  not  imply  approval  of  an  arrogant 
or  belligerent  air — quite  the  contrary.    A  reasonable  self-con- 
fidence based  on  knowledge  of  the  subject  under  discussion  may 
be  demonstrated  in  a  firm,  quiet,  inoffensive  way,  utterly  unlike 
noisy  self-assertion. 

If  a  worthy  man  would  come  to  his  own,  then,  let  him  look 
carefully  to  his  speech.  We  withhold  judgment  generally 
until  we  have  heard  a  man's  voice  and  observed  his  manner. 
Successful  men  generally  evince  some  of  the  following  character- 
istics: 

(a)  They  know  what  they  are  talking  about. 

(b)  They  speak  slowly.    We  instinctively  feel  that  over- 
hurried,  careless  speech  indicates  a  hasty,  uninformed  mind. 

(c)  They  speak  in  a  moderate  tone.    We  lose  confidence 
almost  the  instant  that  we  discover  the  speaker  is  excited  or  in 
some  other  way  not  in  complete  control  of  himself. 

(d)  They  do  not  repeat;  they  say  what  they  mean  clearly 
and  fully  the  first  time. 

136.  The  Manner  of  Speaking.     Some  excessive  rudeness 
has  found  its  way  into  English  speech  in  the  name  of  speed. 
Many  men  answer  the  telephone,  for  example,  in  a  "what  do 
you  want"  mood  that  is  anything  but  polite.     The  rudeness 
is  the  greater  for  the  very  reason  that  the  speaker  is  at  a  safe 


COMPOSITION— ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  199 

distance.  This  sort  of  thing  "does  not  pay,"  however.  No 
man  can  afford  to  be  brusque.  Employers  will  seldom  tolerate 
impolite  employees.  The  following  excellent  advice,  which 
may  be  applied  more  widely  than  it  was  originally  intended, 
is  reprinted  by  permission  of  the  Chicago  Telephone  Com- 
pany: 

COURTESY  BETWEEN  TELEPHONE  USERS 

Would  you  rush  into  an  office  or  up  to  the  door  of  a  residence  and 
blurt  out,  "Hello!  Hello!  whom  am  I  talking  to?"  and  then  when  you 
receive  a  reply,  follow  up  your  wild,  discourteous  salutation  with,  "I 
don't  want  you;  get  out  of  my  way.  I  want  to  talk  with  Mr.  Jones"? 
Would  you?  That  is  merely  a  sample  of  the  impolite  and  impatient  con- 
versations that  the  telephone  transmits  many  times  a  day. 

There  is  a  most  agreeable  mode  of  beginning  a  telephone  conversation 
which  many  people  are  now  adopting,  because  it  saves  useless  words  and 
is,  at  the  same  time,  courteous  and  direct.  It  runs  thus: 

The  telephone  bell  rings,  and  the  person  answering  it  says:  "Morton 
&  Company,  Mr.  Baker  speaking."  The  person  calling  then  says:  "Mr. 
Wood  of  Curtis  &  Sons  wishes  to  talk  with  Mr.  White."  When  Mr.  White 
picks  up  the  receiver,  he  knows  Mr.  Wood  is  on  the  other  end  of  the  line, 
and  without  any  unnecessary  and  undignified  "hellos,"  he  at  once  greets 
him  with  the  refreshingly  courteous  salutation:  "Good  morning,  Mr. 
Wood."  That  savors  of  the  genial  handshake  Mr.  Wood  would  have 
received  had  he  called  in  person  upon  Mr.  White. 

Undoubtedly  there  would  be  a  far  higher  degree  of  telephone  courtesy, 
particularly  in  the  way  of  reasonable  consideration  for  the  operators,  if 
the  "face-to-face"  idea  were  more  generally  held  in  the  mind.  The  fact 
that  a  line  of  wire  and  two  shining  instruments  separate  you  from  the 
person  with  whom  you  are  talking  takes  none  of  the  sting  out  of  unkind 
words. 

Telephone  courtesy  means  answering  the  telephone  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible when  the  bell  rings — not  keeping  the  "caller"  waiting  until  one  gets 
good  and  ready  to  answer.  Telephone  courtesy,  on  party-lines,  means 
being  polite  when  some  one  else  unintentionally  breaks  in — not  snapping, 
"Get  off  the  line;  I  am  using  it." 

In  a  word,  it  is  obviously  true  that  that  which  is  the  correct  thing  to 
do  in  a  face-to-face  conversation,  is  also  correct  in  a  telephone  conversa- 
tion, and  any  one  has  but  to  apply  the  rules  of  courtesy  prescribed  long 
years  before  the  telephone  was  first  thought  of,  to  know  the  proper  man- 
ners for  telephone  usage.  Be  forbearing,  considerate,  and  courteous. 
Do  over  the  telephone  as  you  would  do  face-to-face. 


200  VOCATIONAL  1  NCIJSH 

EXERCISE  101 

Study  some  of  the  following  subjects  until  you  are  sure  you 
can  say  something  interesting  about  them.  Then  plan  what 
you  have  to  say,  with  the  hearer  in  mind.  Make  your  talk  so 
plain  that  the  hearer  cannot  misunderstand.  In  other  words, 
be  sure  you  have  something  that  he  wants  to  hear  and  make 
sure  that  he  hears  it.  Be  ready,  the  day  after  tomorrow,  to 
discuss  before  the  class  one  of  the  topics.  In  talking  remember 
the  following  points: 

(a)  Speak  slowly;  don't  use  too  many  words.    "Talk  is 
cheap" — the  kind  that  requires  many  words  for  one  idea. 

(b)  Tell  the  first  thing  first.    Remember  that  your  hearer 
has  no  way  of  knowing  what  you  have  in  mind  except  through 
your  own  words. 

(c)  Speak  confidently.     You  are  the  hian  who  knows,  and 
for  the  time  being  you  are  the  most  important  member  of  the 
class. 

(d)  Stand  erect,  without  leaning  on  anything.    It  is  only 
weak  things  that  need  support. 

(e)  Avoid  "Wy's"    (why's)   and   "ah's."     Do  not  string 
your  sentences  together  with  "and's." 

(f)  When  you  have  finished,  stop  with  a  strong  point. 
Many  a  good  address  has  been  spoiled  by  a  half  score  of  verbal 
postscripts. 

SUBJECTS 

1.  Why  I  Have  a  Right  to  Live.     If  a  burglar  were  to  come  into  your 

house  and  upon  going  away  leave  the  house  poorer  for  his  visit, 
would  you  consider  him  within  his  rights?  Had  he  a  right  to  steal? 
When  a  man  comes  into  our  house  (the  world)  and  leaves  us  poorer 
when  he  dies,  had  he  a  right  to  what  he  took? 

2.  The  Worst  Quality  a  Man  Can  Have — Cowardice.    Why  does  a  man 

lie?  Is  it  because  he  is  afraid  of  the  consequences  of  something  he 
has  done,  if  the  truth  is  known?  Why  will  a  man  steal?  Isn't  it 
because  he  is  afraid  to  meet  other  men  on  equal  footing? 

3.  If  You  Want  a  Thing  Well  Done,  Don't  Do  It  Yourself.    This  is  the 

age  of  specialization. 


COMPOSITION— ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  201 

4.  ''Simon  Says  'Thumbs  Up.'  "     Simon  (fashion)  says  "Tight  sleeves"; 

all  the  girls  comply.     Simon  says  "New  automobile  shape";  Father 
mortgages  the  homestead. 

5.  Early  to  Bed  Makes  a  Man  Ignorant. 

6.  Good  Results  of  Women's  Gossip. 

EXERCISE  1O2 

Arrange  a  debate  with  members  of  another  class  or  with 
members  of  your  own  class.  Ask  your  teacher  to  help  you 
arrange  your  thoughts  in  a  forceful  way.  Debating  is  like 
football:  the  winners  must  have  "steam"  and  be  able  to 
concentrate  on  one  spot.  Suggested  subjects  follow: 

1.  Resolved:     That  the  Sporting  Page  Does  More  Harm  than  Good. 

2.  Resolved :     That  the  Comic  Supplement  Should  Be  Prohibited  by  Law. 

3.  Resolved:     That   Breaking  Quarantine  Should   Constitute  a   Crime 

Punishable  on  a  Par  with  Stealing. 

4.  Resolved :     That  a  Stenographer  Should  Not  Transcribe  Letters  Con- 

taining Lies.     (People  will  call  at  the  "rail"  and  ask  her  concerning 
these  things;  then  she  will  have  to  lie  directly.) 

137.  General    Instructions    as    to    Written    Composition. 

Whatever  our  feeling  as  to  mere  "talk"  may  be,  we  all  realize 
that  when  we  sit  down  to  write  something,  we  are  engaged  in 
composition.  Yet  here  also  we  are  too  careless;  here  also  we 
need  patient  practice.  Good  English  flows  easily — as  if  the 
writer  were  careless  of  form,  allowing  words  to  fall  naturally 
into  place.  But  this  is  only  a  seeming  carelessness;  writing 
even  simple  English  requires  a  good  deal  of  thought  in  phrasing 
and  often  considerable  rephrasing  to  avoid  misunderstandings. 
In  the  composition  exercises  that  follow,  these  fundamental 
points  as  to  form  must  be  borne  in  mind: 

1.  Use    ink    (or    typewriter)    in    all    composition.     Few 
permanent  or  important  records  are  made  in  pencil. 

2.  Use  only  good  paper  of  fairly  large  size.     Eight  and  a  half 
by  eleven  inches  is  a  desirable  size. 

3.  Be  careful.     Don't  blot  a  page.     Leave  a  margin  at  the 
left  and  don't  crowd  your  words  or  lines  too  closely  together. 
Take  pride  in  the  neatness  and  orderliness  of  your  work. 


202  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

4.  Give  each  piece  of  work  an  appropriate  l>ri(f  title,  \\ritt.  n 
in  the  middle  of  the  top  line  of  the  first  page;  and  leave  a  blank 
between  the  title  and  the  composition. 

5.  Avoid  especially  these  two  blunders: 

(a)  The  use  of  a  comma  to  hold  together  unconnected 
members  of  a  compound  sentence.     (See  Section  10.) 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

First  feed  your  engine  gas,  to  do  st  feed  your  engine  gas.    To 

this  turn  down  the  lever  on  the  .  do  this,  turn  down  the  lever  on  the 
steering  wheel.  steering  wheel. 

Or— 

First  feed  your  engine  gas;  to  do 
this,  turn  down  the  lever  on  the 
steering  wheel. 

Remember  that  the  semicolon  may  be  used  as  in  the  second 
"correct"  example  only  when  there  is  a  clear  sense  relation 
between  the  clauses.  (See  Section  97.) 

(b)  The  failure  to  build  similar  parts  of  a  sentence  on  the 
same  plan.     (See  Section  157.) 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

To  start  a  car  give  it  gas  and  To  start  a  car  give  it  gas  and 

then  the  starter  is  pushed.  push  the  starter. 

Give  it  gas  and  push  the  starter  are  of  similar  construction. 

138.  The  Simple  Style  in  Writing.  If  you  were  to  go  to- 
morrow to  an  aviation  school,  should  you  attempt  to  fly  alone 
within  a  month?  Would  it  be  advisable  for  you  to  attempt 
trick  flying  until  you  had  learned  simple  flying?  And  isn't  it 
probable  that  many  boys  and  girls  could  never  learn  the  more 
dangerous  aerial  work  because  they  are  physically  unfit  for  it? 
Similarly,  none  but  the  writer  of  long  and  successful  experience 
should  attempt  to  write  as  did  some  of  the  masters  of  English 
prose.  Ordinary  persons  should  be  content  with  plain  state- 
ments and  simple  words.  It  is  usually  futile  for  the  school 
boy  or  girl  to  attempt  written  eloquence. 

In  fact,  few  of  our  great  writers  employed  an  elaborately 
sustained  style.  Even  Stevenson,  one  of  the  best  of  stylists, 


COMPOSITION— ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  .  203 

commonly  used  short  words  and  direct  sentences.  His  style 
is  so  natural  that  the  reader  is  generally  unconscious  of  any 
effort  in  reading.  Note  the  simplicity  of  the  following  extract 
from  Treasure  Island.  Are  the  words  long  or  hard?  Do  you 
have  any  trouble  in  following  the  story?  Can  you  picture  the 
captain  and  the  sea-shore? 

It  was  one  January  morning,  very  early— a  pinching,  frosty  morning — 
the  cove  all  gray  with  hoarfrost,  the  ripple  lapping  softly  on  the  stones, 
the  sun  still  low  and  only  touching  the  hilltops  and  shining  far  to  seaward. 
The  captain  had  risen  earlier  than  usual,  and  set  out  down  the  beach, 
his  cutlass  swinging  under  the  broad  skirts  of  the  old  blue  coat,  his  brass 
telescope  under  his  arm,  his  hat  tilted  back  upon  his  head.  I  remember 
his  breath  hanging  like  smoke  in  his  wake  as  he  strode  off,  and  the  last 
sound  I  heard  of  him,  as  he  turned  the  big  rock,  was  a  loud  snort  of  in- 
dignation, as  though  his  mind  was  still  running  upon  Dr.  Livesey. 

Well,  mother  was  upstairs  with  father;  and  I  was  laying  the  breakfast 
table  against  the  captain's  return,  when  the  parlor  door  opened,  and  a 
man  stepped  in  on  whom  I  had  never  set  my  eyes  before.  He  was  a  pale, 
tallowy  creature,  wanting  two  ringers  of  the  left  hand ;  and,  though  he  wore 
a  cutlass,  he  did  not  look  much  like  a  fighter.  I  had  always  my  eye  open 
for  seafaring  men,  with  one  leg  or  two,  and  I  remember  this  one  puzzled 
me.  He  was  not  sailorly,  and  yet  he  had  a  smack  of  the  sea  about  him, 
coo. 

I  asked  him  what  was  for  his  service,  and  he  said  he  would  take  rum ; 
but  as  I  was  going  out  of  the  room  to  fetch  it  he  sat  down  upon  a  table 
and  motioned  me  to  draw  near.  I  paused  where  I  was  with  my  napkin 
in  my  hand. 

"Come  here,  sonny,"  says  he.  "Come  nearer  here."  I  took  a  step 
nearer. 

"Is  this  here  table  for  my  mate  Bill?"  he  asked,  with  a  kind  of  leer  .  . 

139.  Expressive  English.  In  general  the  style  of  writing 
which  gives  the  most  thought  per  word  is  best,  just  as  the 
automobile  tire  which  gives  the  most  miles  of  service  per 
dollar  cost  is  best.  Sometimes  a  single  word  will  give  a  wealth 
of  impression  equal  to  that  of  a  complete  sentence  or  even  half 
a  page  of  ordinary  composition. 

A  pupil  wrote  of  a  young  man  as  "going  timidly  up  the  exit 
of  the  elevated"  (railroad).  Now  almost  every  one  living 
in  a  large  city  has  at  times  started  up  the  exit  stairs — they 


204  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

are  just  like  the  entrance  stairs  except  for  the  signs — but 
after  a  few  steps  the  big  blue  and  white  "Exit  only"  has  sent 
him  down  quickly.  Going  "timidly"  up  the  exit,  however, 
proves  that  the  young  man  was  not  merely  careless.  'Timidly" 
speaks  of  ignorance  of  the  city,  embarrassment,  and  general 
inexperience.  That  one  word  is  worth  several  sentences. 

In  the  following  sentence  from  David  //arum,  note  the 
effect  of  the  word  lowered.  Could  you  in  half  a  page  give  as 
much  information  about  David's  manner  of  eating  or  his 
station  in  life  as  is  expressed  in  the  one  word  lowered? 

David  threw  back  his  head  and  lowered  a  stalk  of  the  last  asparagus 
of  the  year  into  his  mouth. 

Note  the  words  caved  in  in  the  following.  Do  they  mean 
more  than  that  his  hat  is  out  of  shape? 

I  come  down  here  with  my  hat  caved 

I'm  goin'  back  home  with  a  pocket  full  of  tin. 

— Song,  "Camptown  Races/1  Foster 

What  do  you  know  about  a  man  who  calls  money  tint 

Try,  then,  to  write  in  a  simple  way,  but  to  express  as  much 
as  possible  in  a  few  words.  Tell  nothing  that  your  reader  will 
resent  as  needless  information.  And  don't  have  the  sun  sink 
in  resplendent  glory  into  a  sea  of  molten  gold;  have  it  set.. 

The  remainder  of  this  chapter  consists  of  simple  exercises 
in  which  the  precepts  that  have  been  given  are  to  be  put  into 
effect. 

EXERCISE  1O3 

1.  What  qualities  do  you  associate  with  the  following  word 
groups?  For  instance:  Isn't  a  man  with  gray  eyes  generally 
cool — given  to  taking  care  of  his  own  money — somewhat  stern? 

large  diamond  ring  stubby  nails  large  watch  charm 

gray  eyes  shuffling  gait  heavy  beard 

bald  head  trousers  tight  over  run-over  shoes 

blue  eyes  knees  cob  pipe 

curly  hair  celluloid  collar  yellow  teeth 


COMPOSITION— ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  205 

2.  Use  each  of  the  following  adjectives  with  some  suitable 
noun: 

fantastic  consummate  illiterate  luxuriant 

scintillating  pusillanimous  petulant  pallid 

perturbed  ramshackle  torrid  typical 

tallowy  taut  irritable  credulous 

resolute  malcontent  solitary  cunning 

EXERCISE  1O4 

Write  a  short  paper  on  one  of  the  following  subjects: 

1.  The  Earliest  Thing  I  Can  Remember. 

2.  Things  I  Won't  Do  Again. 

3.  Buying  Things  You  Don't  Want. 

4.  Nicknames  I  Have  Had. 

5.  Getting  Out  on  the  Wrong  Side  of  the  Bed. 

6.  The  Kind  of  Boy  I  Think  My  Father  Was. 

EXERCISE  1O5 

Write  a  short  paper  on  one  of  the  following: 

1.  One  Thing  a  Boy  Scout  Must  Know. 

2.  Why  a  Bucket  of  Water  Set  in  the  Storage  Room  Will  Help  to 

Keep  Vegetables  from  Freezing.     (Ask  some  one  who  knows.) 

3.  The  Purpose  of  a  Silo. 

4.  What  One  Can  Learn  on  a  Street  Car. 

5.  Why  Salt  on  the  Sidewalk  Removes  Ice. 

6.  Getting  Something  for  Nothing. 

7.  Pleasures  of  Being  Poor. 

8.  Should  a  Boy  Know  Art  and  Music? 

9.  Why  Do  Boys  Have  Buttons  on  Their  Coat  Sleeves?     (Discuss 

the  force  of  tradition.) 
10.  Swimming  with  the  Australian  Crawl  Stroke. 

EXERCISE  1O6 

Write  several  short  paragraphs  of  advice  on  one  of  the 
following  subjects.     Begin  with  Always,  or  Never. 

1.  Taking  Care  of  Baby. 

2.  Playing  Baseball  (or  Tennis,  Football,  etc.) 

3.  Learning  to  Swim. 

4.  Taking  a  "Snap-shot." 

5.  Picking  Mushrooms. 

6.  Running  a  Motor  Car. 

7.  In  Trouble  with  Father  (or  the  Teacher,  or  the  Preacher). 


206  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  107 

After  you  have  gathered  the  material  necessary  to  a  report 
for  your  history  or  commercial  geography  class,  discuss  with 
your  English  teacher  the  most  effective  way  to  organize  it. 
Write  the  paper  under  the  English  teacher's  direction. 

EXERCISE  108 

Girls:  Write  a  paper  on  the  subject:  Wall  Paper — Its 
Relation  to  the  Use  of  the  Room. 

Boys:  Assume  that  you  are  the  editor  of  a  Question  and 
Answer  column  in  the  sporting  sheet  of  a  great  newspaper. 
Answer  clearly  but  briefly  the  following  questions: 

With  the  bases  full  the  batter  hits  a  short  fly  to  the  loft  fi. -1 .1.  r. 
Thinking  it  will  be  caught,  the  runners  hug  their  bases.  The  fielder  holds 
the  ball  a  half  second,  drops  it  at  his  feet,  and  then  throws  home.  The 
ball  is  quickly  relayed  to  third  and  second.  Are  three  men  out?  Has 
the  fielder  a  right  to  drop  a  ball  purposely? 

EXERCISE  109 

What  I  Found  M«»-t  Interesting  in  the  Advertisement-  in 
this  Month's (any  magazine). 

Go  carefully  through  the  advertising  pages,  marking  what 
interests  you.  Tell  in  a  short  paragraph  just  why  you  are 
interested.  Do  not  include  a  discussion  of  two  advertisements 
in  one  paragraph. 

EXERCISE  no 

Write  a  composition  of  about  two  hundred  words  on  one  of 
the  following  subjects: 

1.  Benefits  of  Crying. 

2.  If  I  Were  a  "Movie"  Censor. 

3.  Absence  Makes  the  Grades  Grow  Poorer. 

4.  Ways  of  Sharpers. 

5.  Songs  That  Live. 

6.  What  I've  Thought  Most  About  during  the  Last  Week. 


COMPOSITION— ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  207 

EXERCISE   111 

Write  a  paper  on  one  of  the  following  subjects.     Don't 
explain  too  closely.     Let  the  reader  "see  the  point." 

1.  Why  I  Didn't  Get  There  on  Time. 

2.  On  Forgetting  a  Friend's  Name. 

3.  How  I  Feel  after  Seeing  a  "Movie." 

4.  Caught  Talking  to  Myself.  , 

5.  How  My  Aunt  Wants  Me  to  Act. 

6.  When  Tom  Didn't  Think  Far  Enough.     (For  instance,  when  he 
decoyed  Rover  under  a  hornet's  nest  and  threw  a  stone  through  it.) 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  XIII 

1.  Is  knowledge  of  how  a  bicycle  is  balanced  sufficient,  or  must  one 
practice  riding?    Is  composition  practice  necessary? 

2.  To  what  extent  do  you  judge  a  stranger  by  his  speech? 

3.  What  is  the  difference  between  self-confidence  and  egotism?    How 
can  one  show  self-confidence  without  being  thought  "overbearing"? 

4.  Describe  the  manner  of  speech  employed  by  men  of  force. 

5.  What  is  the  correct  way  of  answering  the  telephone?    Why  is  dis- 
courtesy over  the  telephone  worse  than  rudeness  face  to  face? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  the  instruction,  "Tell  the  first  thing  first"? 

7.  Two  special  errors  are  noted  in  the  general  directions  for  written 
composition.    What  are  they? 

8.  What  are  the  salient  features  of  the  quotation  from  Stevenson 
on  page  203?         •  s 

9.  What  is, "fine  writing"?    Why  should  one  avoid  it? 


CHAPTER    XIV 
ORGANIZING  A  COMPOSITION 

140.  The  Need  of  Organization.     Writing  should,  first  of 
all,  transmit  information  from  the  writer  to  the  reader.    If  the 
reader  of  a  letter,  for  instance,  fails  to  understand,  the  letter 
is  a  failure  and  represents  lost  time  and  money.    The  material 
must  be  discussed  in  a  clear  and  systematic  order  if  the  purpose 
of  writing  is  to  be  accomplished. 

But  a  letter  lacking  clearness  is  more  than  a  waste  of  time 
and  money;  it  often  prejudices  the  reader  against  the  writer. 
Business  men  are  coming  to  recognize  the  fact  that  every  letter 
going  out  from  their  houses  is  an  advertisement,  whether  or 
not  it  contains  "selling  argument."  A  letter,  like  a  man, 
makes  an  impression.  A  good  impression  leads  to  confidence 
and  future  business.  On  the  other  hand,  after  a  busy  man  has 
wasted  his  valuable  time  puzzling  over  the  meaning  of  a  letter, 
he  is  not  usually  in  a  mood  favorable  to  the  writer. 

141.  The  Paragraph.     The  writer  who  thinks  clearly  will 
naturally  divide  his  subject  into  steps  or  divisions.     Each  of 
these  divisions  of  thought  should  ordinarily  hive  a  paragraph 
to  itself.    Accordingly  each  paragraph  should  treat  only  the  one 
topic  assigned  to  it.    It  should  be  so  organized  that  the  reader 
will  know  upon  beginning  it  what  the  paragraph  is  about,  and 
upon  finishing,  exactly  what  the  writer's  ideas  upon  the  topic  are. 

Furthermore,  each  paragraph  will  be  set  off  so  as  to  appeal 
to  the  eye  at  a  glance.  Its  first  line  will  be  indented  plainly 
and  other  lines  will  not  be  indented.  All  space  will  be  filled 
to  the  right  margin,  except  possibly  the  last  line. 

142.  Paragraphing  Business  Correspondence.     Not  even  in 
literature  is  correct  paragraphing  so  important  as  in  the  business 
letter.     Business  is  possible  only  by  doing  intensively  one  thing 
at  a  time.     The  successful  business  man  develops  to  extra- 
ordinary efficiency  the  power  of  turning  instantly  from  one 

208 


ORGANIZING  A  COMPOSITION  209 

subject  to  another;  but  he  wants  these  subjects  to  be  complete 
in  themselves  and  clearly  distinguished  from  each  other.  Thus 
a  business  man  will,  on  writing  a  letter  dealing  with  three 
things,  form  three  distinct  sections,  usually  paragraphs.  And 
when  he  passes  from  one  topic  to  the  next  he  will  naturally  give 
definite  notice  of  the  change.  A  clear  t  tinker  will  treat  each 
subject  so  thoroughly  that  he  will  have  no  further  need  of 
saying  anything  about  it  unless  a  summary  is  needed. 

EXERCISE  112 

Make  such  notes  as  the  person  dictating  the  following  let- 
ter may  have  had  before  him.  What  plan  had  he  in  mind? 

Chicago,  Illinois 
December  20,  19_ 
Mr.  Howard  Endren 
Hotel  Henderson 
Columbus,  Ohio 
My  dear  Endren: 

I  was  talking  over  the  Youngstown  business  with  Mr.  Waldron 
yesterday,  and  he  suggested  that  since  you  are  in  Columbus  it  will  be  a 
saving  of  time  and  money  for  you  to  run  up  to  Youngstown  and  look  after 
the  cases  there.  He  feels  sure,  as  I  do,  that  you  will  use  the  best  of  judg- 
ment, although  the  work  is  a  little  out  of  your  line.  If  possible,  get  away 
from  Columbus  Monday  night,  for  you  may  have  trouble  at  Youngstown, 
and  we  cannot  spare  more  than  two  days  on  the  three  cases  there. 

Call  on  Mrs.  James  Wescott,  311  Front  Street.  Make  a  full  settle- 
ment and  collect  waiver.  The  case  is  regular. 

Most  of  your  time  will  be  taken  up  with  the  Norton  case.  Ascertain 
the  following  points: 

Was  he  drunk  the  day  of  the  accident?  Find  out  from  his 
neighbors,  his  employers,  and  any  other  sources,  what  his 
habits  with  regard  to  drink  are. 

What  is  the  reputation  of  the  physician  upon  whose  report  the 
claim  was  made?  If  you  are  suspicious,  have  another  medical 
report  immediately. 

The  third  case  is  regular,  except  that  Crumbaker  has  not  read  cor- 
rectly the  terms  of  the  policy.     You  will  see  the  error. 
You  will  find  letters  and  data  under  separate  cover. 

Yours  sincerely,- 

The  Providing  Accident  Insurance  Co. 
By _ 


•Jio  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Consider  the  following  points  in  relation  to  the  foregoing 
letter- 

1.  How  many  paragraphs  are  there? 

2.  Why  is  the  first  so  much  longer  than  the  second? 

3.. Is  Paragraph  4  a  "brother"  of  Paragraph  2  or  a  "nephew"?    Ex- 
plain. 

4.  What  is  the  relation  of  Paragraph  3  to  Paragraph  4?    To  Paragraph 

2? 

5.  Why  was  not  the  7th  joined  to  the  6th  instead  of  being  made  a 

separate  paragraph? 

143.  Paragraphing  in  Ordinary  Composition.     A  little  study 
of  any  piece  of  good  writing  will  reveal,  not  a  hit-or-miss  manner 
of  presentation,  but  an  orderly  system  based  on  clear  thinking 
and  careful  organization.    With  this  truth  in  mind,  examine 
the  following  paragraphs;  then  state  the  subject  of  each: 

In  1870  I  happened  to  be  on  a  train  that  was  stopped  for  three  hours 
to  let  a  herd  of  buffalo  pass.  We  supposed  they  would  soon  pass  by,  but 
they  kept  nuniim.  On  a  number  of  occasions  in  the  earlier  days  the 
engineers  thought  th.-it  they  could  run  through  the  herds,  and  that,  seeing 
the  locomotive,  the  buffalo  would  stop  or  turn  aside;  but  after  a  few  loco- 
motives had  been  ditched  by  the  animals  the  engineers  got  in  the  way  of 
respecting  the  buffalo's  idiosyncrasies. 

Up  to  within  a  few  years,  in  northern  Montana  and  southern  Alberta, 
old  buffalo  trails  have  been  readily  traceable  by  the  eye,  even  as  one  passed 
on  a  railroad  train.  These  trails,  fertilized  by  the  buffalo  and  deeply 
cut  so  as  to  long  hold  moisture,  may  still  be  seen  in  summer  as  green  lanes 
winding  up  and  down  the  hills  to  and  from  the  water  courses. 

For  many  years  I  have  held  the  opinion  that  in  early  days  on  the  plains, 
as  I  saw  them,  antelope  were  much  more  abundant  than  buffalo.  Buffalo, 
of  course,  being  big  and  black,  were  impressive  if  seen  in  masses  and  were 
visible  a  long  way  off.  Antelope,  smaller  and  less  conspicuous  in  color, 
were  often  passed  unnoticed.1 

144.  Indicating  the  Subject  of  a  Paragraph.     It  is  generally 
possible,  in  the  case  of  writing  intended  mainly  or  merely  to 
give  information,  to  learn  from  the  first  sentence  of  a  well-made 
paragraph  what  the  paragraph  is  about.    Such  a  title  or  subject 

1  From  an  article  by  Dr.  George  Bird  Grinnell  in  the  National  Geographic  Magazine, 
November.  1917. 


ORGANIZING  A  COMPOSITION  211 

sentence  is  called  a  topic  sentence.  Notice  the  following 
topic  sentences  from  The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table, 
by  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes: 

1.  "You  don't  know  what  I  mean  by  the  green  state?    Well,  then,  I  will 

tell  you."     (Explanation  of  the  green  state  follows.) 

2.  "There  are  two  kinds  of  poets  just  as  there  are  two  kinds  of  blondes." 

(Explanation  and  comparison.) 

3.  "My  friend  the  Professor  began  talking  with  me  one  day  in  a  dreary 

sort  of  way."     (Then  follows  an  explanation  that  friends  were 
beginning  to  regard  him  as  old.) 

Example  3  was  chosen  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  the  topic 
sentence  does  not  always  indicate  the  subject  matter  of  the 
paragraph;  in  this  case  the  mood  of  the  Professor  is  indicated. 

Topic  sentences  may  occur  at  some  other  point  than  the 
beginning  of  a  paragraph,  but  in  most  writing  for  practical 
purposes  it  is  best  to  begin  with  a  clear  indication  of  the  topic. 


EXERCISE  113 

• 

Consider  the  following  questions  in  relation  to  the  passage 
quoted  from  Doctor  Grmnell  in  Section  143 : 

1.  What  is  discussed  in  each  paragraph? 

2.  Study  the  first  sentence  in  each  paragraph.    Does  this  sentence  give 

you  the  substance  of  the  paragraph? 

3.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  other  sentences  in  each  paragraph? 

4.  What  do  we  call  the  first  sentence  of  a  paragraph  of  the  sort  illustrated? 

5.  What  does  the  newspaper  reporter  call  such  a  first  sentence?      (See 

Sec.  178.) 

6.  If  you  were  trying  to  get  the  substance  of  an  article  hurriedly,  what 

would  you  read?     What  would  be  your  success  in  this  particular 
case?    Try  the  method  in  other  articles. 

145.  The  Making  of  a  Plan.  An  extensive  piece  of  com- 
position' usually  has  divisions  larger  than  paragraphs.  The 
author  of  a  book  generally  decides  upon  his  chapter  subjects 
first;  then  he  works  out  the  details  of  each  chapter,  and  finally 
he  writes  the  chapter. 


212  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

For  illustration,  suppose  an  author  intends  writing  a  book 
on  the  subject,  "Making  the  Small  Farm  Pay."  He  decides 
that  his  book  must  treat  the  following  topics: 

Live  Stock  Soil  Fertility  Location 

Poultry  The  Dairy  Buildings 

Fruit  Machinery  Crops 

These  subjects,  he  sees,  must  be  chapter  headings.  He 
has  yet  to  arrange  them  in  logical  order;  i.e.,  he  must  decide 
which  chapter  is  to  come  first,  which  second,  etc.  On  think- 
ing the  matter  over  and  concluding  that  Location  should  come 
first,  he  letters  it  (a);  Buildings  (b);  and  so  on  through  the  list 
as  indicated  below: 

(g)  Live  Stock  o)  Soil  Fertility          (a)  Location 

Poultry  (h)  The  Dairy  (b)  Buildings 

(f)   I  (e)  Machinery  (d)  Crops 

A  letter  or  a  short  composition  might  be  written  without  a 
rearrangement  of  these  topics  in  logical  order;  but  most  writers, 
especially  in  the  case  of  a  book,  would  prefer  to  make  a  new 
plan  in  the  order  of  the  letters,  as  follows: 

(a)  Location  (d)  Crops  (g)  Live  Stock 

(b)  Buildings  (e)  Machinery  (h)  The  Dairy 

(c)  Soil  Fertility  (f)   Fruit  (i)   Poultry 

The  writer's  next  task  is  the  expansion  of  the  chapter 
headings.  He  must  think  over  the  things  he  has  to  say  about 
(f),  for  instance.  Doubtless  he  would  have  material  on 
insect  pests,  scales,  pruning,  setting,  cultivating,  variety,  etc. 
He  would  have  to  arrange  these  subjects  in  logical  order.  Then 
further  subdividing  would  be  necessary.  There  are  a 
possible  dozen  insect  pests  that  would  have  to  be  described 
carefully.  This  outlining  would  be  continued  until  the  plan  of 
each  chapter  had  been  worked  out.  Then  the  actual  writing 
would  begin. 

146.  Faults  in  the  Planning  of  School  Themes.  Of  course, 
no  composition  required  of  an  ordinary  student  will  need  a  plan 
so  extensive  as  that  described  in  the  preceding  section.  Never- 


ORGANIZING  A  COMPOSITION  213 

theless,  a  little  experience  will  teach  that  the  best  way  to  make 
haste  in  composition  is  to  plan  thoroughly  what  you  intend  to 
say  before  you  begin  the  actual  writing.  Do  not  be  dis- 
couraged, either,  if  your  first  attempts  are  not  entirely  satis- 
factory. Be  on  your  guard  against  three  common  faults  in 
planning,  as  follows: 

1.  A  too  minute  division  of  the  subject.    You  must  not  forget 
that -each  final  division  of  your  plan  is  usually  to  be  a  paragraph 
and  should,  therefore,  represent  a  section  of  the  subject  large 
enough  to  need  a  paragraph. 

EXAMPLE  of  too  minute  division : 
Subject— Central  Park 

1.  Location 

2.  Size 

3.  Purpose 

etc. 

In  a  short  theme,  location  and  size  may  be  very  adequately 
treated  in  a  single  paragraph. 

2.  Too  extensive  planning.     A  very  brief  plan  may  call  for 
a  long  composition;  much  depends  on  the  scope  of  the  different 
topics.     A  common  tendency  of  the  beginner  is  to  try  to  deal 
with  material  sufficient  for  an  extended  essay.     Thus  he  begins 
a  plan  for  a  short  composition  on  cotton  as  follows : 

1.  Countries  producing  it 

2.  Kinds  of  cotton 

3.  The  climate  required 

4.  Planting 

5.  Picking 

6.  Ginning 

7.  Carding 

etc. 

Obviously  there  is  sufficient  material  for  a  short  composition 
in  any  one  of  these  divisions,  alone,  if  fully  developed.  This 
fact  suggests 'the  need  of  very  definitely  limiting  one's  subject 
and  one's  purpose  in  composition. 

3.  An  illogical  arrangement.     Sometimes  it  is  hard  to  decide 
what  is  the  best  order  in  which  to  present  one's  material.    Thus, 


214  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

in  the  final  plan  in  Section  145,  topic  (f)  might  exchange  places 
with  (e),  so  far  as  one  can  tell  from  so  general  a  plan;  but  (g), 
(h),  and  (i)  are  clearly  a  related  series  of  topics  that  should  not 
be  separated  by  (f)  or  by  any  other  topic  in  the  list.  The 
greatest  care  to  keep  related  topics  together  is  always  necessary. 
147.  The  Paragraphing  of  Conversation.  The  student  has 
doubtless  heard  a  ventriloquist  taking  a  dual  role  in  a  vaude- 
ville act.  A  part,  at  least,  of  his  deceptive  art  is  due  to  the 
difference  in  pitch  or  quality  of  tone  between  the  ventrilo- 
quist's own  voice  and  that  which  seems  to  come  from  his 
dummy.  In  writim  conversation  there  is  no  such  natural 
means  of  indicating  the  speaker.  Accordingly  the  writer 
must  resort  to  some  other  method  of  showing  who  is  talking. 
There  are  several  devices  regularly  employed  for  this  purpose; 
one  of  them  is  the  paragraph.  Note  the  paragraphing  in  the 
following  extract  from  David  Harum;  observe: 

(1)  That  each  paragraph  continues  until  one  speaker  has 
finished  a  speech. 

(2)  That  explanation  added  by  the  author  is  in  one  case 
put  into  a  separate  paragraph  (No.  4).    In  the  first  paragraph 
the  explanation  is  included  in  the  same  paragraph  with  the 
quotation. 

(3)  That  quotation  marks  are  used. 

"Where  you  ben?"  asked  Mrs.  Bixbee  of  her  brother  as  the  three  sat 
at  the  .one  o'clock  dinner.  "I  see  you  drivin'  off  somewheres." 

"Ben  up  the  Lake  Road  to  'Lizer  Howe's,"  replied  David.  "He's 
got  a  hoss  't  I've  some  notion  o'  buyin'." 

"Ain't  the  week-days  enough,"  she  asked,  "to  do  your  horee-tradin' 
in  'ithout  breakin'  the  Sabbath?" 

David  threw  back  his  head  and  lowered  a  stalk  of  the  last  asparagus 
of  the  year  into  his  mouth. 

"Some  o'  the  best  deals  I  ever  made,"  he  said,  "was  made  on  a  Sunday. 
Hain't  you  never  heard  the  sayin',  The  better  the  day,  the  better  the 
deal'?" 

Sometimes  quotation  marks  and  a  new  paragraph  give  the 
only  indication  of  a  change  of  speaker.  Such  omission  of 
definite  mention  of  the  speaker  should  not  continue  long 


ORGANIZING  A  COMPOSITION  215 

enough  to  cause  any  confusion  in  the  reader's  mind.     Examine 
the  following  paragraphs : 

The  time  having  come  for  her  withdrawal  for  the  night,  and  she  having 
left  us,  I  gave  Mr.  Wickfield  my  hand,  preparatory  to  going  away  myself. 
But  he  checked  me  and  said :  "Should  you  liketostay  with  us,  Trotwood, 
or  go  elsewhere?" 

"To  stay,"  I  answered  quickly. 

"You  are  sure?" 

"If  you  please.     If  I  may!" 

"Why,  it's  but  a  dull  life  that  we  lead  here,  boy,  I  am  afraid,"  he  said. 

"Not  more  dull  for  me  than  Agnes,  sir.     Not  dull  at  all!" 

"Than  Agnes!"  he  repeated,  walking  slowly  to  the  great  chimney- 
piece,  and  leaning  against  it.  "Than  Agnes!" 

— "David  Copperfield,"  Dickens 

EXERCISE  114 

This  exercise  should  take  several  days — long  enough  to 
impress  upon  the  student  the  necessity  of  order  in  plan  and 
of  concentration  successively  upon  each  step  of  the  subject. 
The  chief  differences  between  a  ten-thousand-dollar-a-year  man 
and  a  ten-dollar-a-week  man  lie  in  ability  to  get  at  the  skeleton 
of  a  task  and  in  the  power  of  concentration  necessary  to  accom- 
plish it. 

You  are,  we  shall  assume,  to  write  a  book  or  a  monograph 
on  each  one  of  three  subjects  chosen  from  the  following  list. 
Indicate  just  what  you  would  have  in  each  chapter  or  division. 
Be  specific.  Letter  the  divisions  to  show  the  order  you  think 
they  ought  to  follow. 

1.  The  Qualities  of  a  Real  Man  (Woman). 

2.  How  a  Boy  (Girl)  Should  Use  Twenty-four  Hours  Each  Day. 

3.  New  Uses  for  the  Automobile. 

4.  Courage — the  Greatest  Asset  in  a  Boy's  Character.     (Show  that 

lying,  for  instance,  is  due  to  fear  of  consequences.) 

5.  Cement  and  Modern  Industry. 

6.  What  the  Socialist  Wants. 

7.  Things  I  Shouldn't  Do  and  Why. 

8.  Advertising. 

9.  Influences  Which  Degrade  Boys. 

10.  An  Idea  I  Want  to  Try  Out  in  Business. 

11.  The  Instruments  of  a  Band. 


216  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

12.  The  Future  of  Motion  Picture*. 

13.  The  Influences  of  the  Motion  Picture  Theater. 

14.  The  Man  Who  Thinks  Our  Town  Is  Slow. 

15.  Tree  Surgery. 

16.  Your  Front  Room  as  an  Indication  of  Your  Personality. 

17.  Why  I  Have  a  Right  to  Live. 

18.  Learning  by  Accident. 

19.  What  My  Enemies  Have  Done  for  Me. 

20.  Why  I  Believe  in  Myself. 

21.  The  Golden  Rule  and  My  Sister. 

22.  When  a  Boy  Ought  to  Fight. 

23.  The  Loss  Resulting  from  a  Change  in  the  Fashions. 

24.  Means  Employed  by  Advertisers  to  Attract  Attention. 

EXERCISE  116 

Imagine  that  you  are  in  some  specified  business,  and 
plan  a  letter  to  your  customers,  giving  details  of  some  display 
advertising  material  you  have  for  them.  Make  at  least  seven 
paragraphs.  Explain  what  you  have  to  offer,  suggest  methods 
of  display,  and  point  out  the  value  to  be  obtained  from  the 
advertising.  Make  this  a  matter  of  an  entire  recitation. 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  XIV 

1.  What  is  the  chief  use  of  the  paragraph? 

2.  Why  is  organization  of  such  great  importance? 

3.  Will  a  well-organized  piece  of  writing  generally  be  correctly  para- 
graphed?   Explain. 

4.  What  is  the  practice  of  business  men  regarding  the  paragraphing 
of  business  letters? 

5.  What  is  a  topic  sentence?    Why  the  name  topic?    Find  the  topic 
sentences  in  the  quotation  on  page  210. 

6.  What  are  the  most  common  faults  in  the  planning  of  school  themes? 


CHAPTER   XV 

WRITING  DEFINITE  INSTRUCTIONS 

148.  The  Plan.  Whether  you  become  a  merchant,  a  stenog- 
rapher, a  carpenter,  or  a  farmer,  you  will  need  often  to  write 
definite  instructions  to  some  one.  This  is  by  no  means  as 
simple  as  it  might  seem  at  first.  Anyone  who  has  tried  to 
prepare  instructions  for  operating  a  camera,  for  example,  or 
even  for  making  bread  or  candy,  knows  how  many  puzzles  he 
has  to  solve.  The  chief  difficulty,  of  course,  is  to  decide  to  what 
extent  your  reader  knows  the  names  of  the  tools  and  processes 
involved,  i.e.,  the  nomenclature  of  the  subject.  For  instance, 
in  explaining  the  operation  of  a  kodak  you  would  need  to  con- 
sider your  reader's  difficulties  very  carefully  and  try  to  meet 
them.  Always  plan  any  composition  of  this  nature  with  a 
definite  body  of  readers  in  mind. 

(a)  Example  of  a  plan: 

1.  Opening  the  kodak. 

2.  Naming  and  pointing  out  the  purpose  of  the  parts — shutter,  lens, 

diaphragm  (stop),  trip,  speed  dial,  finder,  and  distance  scale. 

3.  Method  of  operation — adjustment  for  distance,  setting  the  trip,  ad- 

justing the  stop  and  the  speed  dial,  tripping  the  shutter. 

4.  Exposure — proper  speed  of  the  shutter  in  bright  sunlight,  when  to 

stop  down,  etc.     (This  is  not  a  complete  plan;  enough  is  given  to 
show  a  good  form  and  method.) 

(b)  Execution  of  the  plan.     Be  sure  to  treat  processes  in 
their  natural  order.     You  might  write,  following  your  plan: 

1.  The  first  step  in  operating  a  camera  is  to  take  the  kodak  from  its 
case.  Just  above  the  top  of  the  door  you  will  find  the  opening  spring — 
a  small  projection  covered  by  the  leather.  Press  this  gently  and  the 
door  will  fly  partly  open.  Pull  the  door  down  until  you  hear  it  lock  with 
a  snap.  To  extend  the  bellows,  press  gently  the  two  nickeled  catches 
with  thumb  and  finger,  loosening  their  grip  on  the  track,  and  pull  gently 
forward  along  the  track. 

217 


218  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

2.  The  lens  is,  of  course,  glass.  Everything  surrounding  it  is  shutter. 
Just  inside  the  lens  is  a  black  adjustable  curtain,  the  diaphragm  or  stop, 
operated  by  a  lever  at  the  bottom  of  the  shutter  ....  (And  so  the 
explanation  may  continue.) 

The  remainder  of  this  chapter  consists  of  specific  exercises 
in  composition,  in  which  you  will  bear  in  mind  the  following 
directions: 

1.  Put  yourself  in  the  reader's  place  and  discover  what  his 
difficulties  are. 

2.  Don't  forget  to  define  all  terms  the  reader  may  not 
know. 

3.  Be  definite.    Speak  of  one  thing  at  a  time,  using  short, 
direct  sentences.    Make  a  paragraph  for  each  distinct  division 
of  your  subject.* 

4.  Whenever    necessary    give     the    reasons    underlying 
instructions. 

5.  Finish  all  sentences,  and  put  in  the  a's,  an's,  and  the's. 
Do  not,  however,  use  any  unnecessary  words. 

6.  Make   careful   drawings   when   they   will    be   helpful; 
number  or  letter  all  important  pai 

7.  Ask  your  brother  or  a  classmate  to  read  y6ur  paper. 
If  he  doesn't  understand,  seek  your  trouble  and  remedy  it. 

EXERCISE  lie 

Boys:  Explain  and  illustrate  by  drawings  exactly  how  a 
baseball  is  made  to  curve.  In  this,  as  in  any  other  exercise, 
do  not  attempt  to  write  unless  you  know  a  good  deal  about  the 
subject.  In  thfe  case  you  should  know  not  only  which  way  the 
ball  should  turn  for  each  curve,  but  why,  after  the  spin  is 
given,  the  ball  curves. 

Girls:  Using  a  diagram,  plan  an  arrangement  of  furniture 
in  a  living  room  of  the  following  description: 

Fireplace — heavy  brick.  Beamed  ceiling.  Woodwork  and  furniture 
Flemish  oak.  Room  large  with  bay  window  facing  south.  Walnut 
piano. 


WRITING  DEFINITE  INSTRUCTIONS  219 

Write  a  theme  of  two  paragraphs  as  follows: 

(a)  Color  scheme — curtains,  portieres,  carpet. 

(b)  Minor  decorations — bric-a-brac,  lamps,  small  pictures,  wall  pictures. 

If  the  paragraphs  resulting  from  this  plan  are  too  long,  make 
new  divisions.  Under  (a)  discuss  the  tone  (colors)  in  general  in 
one  paragraph  and  the  details  of  this  tone  in  a  second  para- 
graph. Under  (b),  if  necessary,  make  a  paragraph  about 
bric-a-brac  and  another  about  pictures. 

NOTE. — There  are  some  exceedingly  interesting  books  on  household 
decoration,  among  them:  House  Planning  and  Decorating — Calkins; 
The  House  in  Good  Taste — De  Wolfe;  Art  and  Economy  in  Home  Decora- 
tion— Priestman;  Decoration  and  Furnishing  of  Apartments — Herst. 

EXERCISE  117 

Boys:  Organize  and  elaborate .  the  following  rambling 
instructions  for  rifle  shooting.  Make  several  paragraphs. 
Decide,  before  beginning  to  write,  just  what  each  paragraph 
is  to  be  about. 

SHOOTING   THE   RANGE   AT  200   YARDS 

If  you  try  with  the  eye  to  find  the  center  of  a  dinner  plate,  you  will 
miss  it  a  quarter  of  an  inch.  A  marksman  cannot  determine  the  center  of 
a  target  with  accuracy. 

The  observer  is  only  two  feet  from  the  dinner  plate,  but  the  marksman 
is  two  hundred  yards  from  the  "bull's-eye." 

Hold  the  rifle  firmly — not  tightly.  Move  upward  to  the  target.  See 
that  the  gun  is  smoothly  oiled  and  very  clean. 

But  you  can  easily  determine  the  perpendicular  line  through  the 
center  of  a  dinner  plate. 

You  can  easily  locate  the  bottom  point  of  the  bull's-eye.  Aim  at  the 
rim  of  the  black  at  its  lowest  point.  The  front  rifle  sight  does  not  then 
block  the  target  field. 

Do  not  pull  the  trigger  or  you  will  move  the  gun;  instead,  squeeze 
the  stock  slowly  with  the  whole  hand. 

Don't  close  your  eye  when  the  gun  "goes." 

In  order  to  shoot  higher  than  the  bottom  of  the  bull's-eye  circle,  allow 
the  front  sight  to  project  its  own  width  into  the  notch  of  the  rear  sight. 

Stand  still  on  both  feet  and  shoot  with  considerable  air  in  the  lungs. 

If  the  shot  goes  low,  do  not  change  the  point  of  aim;  take  more  of  the 
front  sight. 

(Information  by  a  member  of  the  American  National  Rifle  Team.) 


220  VOCATIONAL  1:\<;USH 

Girls:  Organize  and  rewrite  the  following  instructions. 
Put  the  facts  in  logical  order.  Make  proper  paragraphs  after 
outlining  the  subject. 

GETTING   USE*  TO  WINTER 

• 

A  broken  arm  is  weak  for  months  after  the  break  is  well.  Muscles 
must  be  used  or  they  will  waste  away. 

Carefully  but  persistently  subject  the  neck  and  chest  to  changes  of 
temperature  by  passing  from  the  cold  outside  air  to  the  warm  house.  A 
draft  will  not  give  the  properly  prepared  girl  a  cold. 

There  are  many  small  muscles  in  the  skin  which  should  be  given 
exercise. 

Why  don't  we  catch  cold  when  a  draft  strikes  the  face? 

The  skin  muscles  in  the  face  work  almost  instantly  because  they  are 
kept  exercised. 

A  sudden  draft  on  skin  unaccustomed  to  it  will  cause  a  cold.  In 
inuring  yourself  to  the  cold,  don't  stay  out  too  long.  Quick  changes  give 
the  muscles  the  best  exercise.  The  ankles  and  feet  likewise  should  be 
inured  to  sudden  changes. 

EXERCISE  118 

*  Girls :  Make  a  drawing  of  the  head  of  your  sewing  machine. 
Letter  the  important  parts.  Explain  the  threading  process 
so  carefully  that  an  inexperienced  person  would  have  no 
difficulty  in  understanding  it. 

EXERCISE  119 

You  are  lending  your  cousin  your  camera.  He  is  inexperi- 
enced. Explain  the  manner  of  "loading." 

EXERCISE  120 

Give  definite  instructions  for  taking  a  picture  of  a  group 
of  friends  on  a  summer  day.  Draw  and  letter  the  shutter 
detail,  and  explain  the  value  of  the  stop,  the  operation  of  the 

time  dial,  etc. 

EXERCISE  121 

Kxplain  the  process  of  printing  from  a  negative.  Give 
reasons  for  each  bath,  washing,  etc. 


WRITING  DEFINITE  INSTRUCTIONS 


221 


EXERCISE   122 


Your  uncle  is  coming  to  visit  you,  but  because  of  a  sprained 
ankle  you  cannot  meet  him.  Write  a  clear  explanation, 
accompanied  by  a  diagram  if  you  desire,  of  the  course  he  is  to 
take  to  reach  your  home  from  the  station. 


EXERCISE  123 


Using  the  following  sample  form  of  ballot,  explain  exactly 
how  a  voter  may  indicate  choice  for  one  party  in  general  but 
vote  for  several  men  of  other  parties. 


ODEMOCRATIC  OREPUBLICAN  OPROHIBITION 


For  Governor 

Q  JAS.  A.  DALTON 

For  Lieutenant  Governor 

Q  F..R.  SETTLE 

For  Secretary  of  State 

LEWIS  A.  LEWIS 


For  Governor 

Q  DONALD  BEEBE 

For  Lieutenant  Governor 

Q  E.  A.  OSBORNE 

For  Secretary  of  State 

A.  FURLONG 


For  Governor 

Q  JOHN  A.  SYKES 

For  Lieutenant  Governor 

[J  JOSEPH  TURNER 

For  Secretary  of  State 

[]]  F.  B.  RITZ 


For  State  Treasurer 

]  JOHN  F.  DUNN 

For  State  Auditor 

1  CHARLES  PIPER 

For  State  Treasurer 

Q  L.  E.  PERRY 

For  State  Auditor 

n  CLINTON  HOWE 

For  State  Treasure! 

[]  R.  A.  POORE 

For  State  Auditor 

n  E.  P.  SEARS 

For    Superintendent    of 
Public  Instruction 

M.  E.  HARLEY 


For  Attorney  General 

Q]  L.  P.  STARE 

For  Trustees  of  the 
State  University 

Q  MARY  A.  SMITH 
GEO.  A.  ROWE 


For    Superintendent    of 
Public  Instruction 

Q  SEWELL  T.  ADE 

For  Attorney  General 

Q  OGDENV.GRE^NT 

For  Trustees  of  the 
State  University 

Q  ANNE  P.  HAYES 
H.  ARNOLD 


For    Superintendent    of 
Public  Instruction 

Q  N.  0.  McGEE 

For  Attorney  General 

Q  W.B.BEARDSLEY 

For  Trustees  of  the 
State  University 

Q]  J.  I.  ADAMS 

[J  EDITH  JOHNSON 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


EXERCISE   124» 


Suppose  the  cut  accompanying  this  exercise  is  to  be  sent  with 
a  letter  to  the  purchaser  of  the  automobile;  explain  clearly  to. 


A -Spark  Control  Lever 
B- Hand  Throttle 
C- Ignition 
D  -  Accelerator  Pedal 
E- Starter 
F -Foot  Brake  Pedal 
G    Clutch  Pedal 
H -GcarShift  Lev 
-Emergency  Brake 


a  purchaser  just  how  to  start  his  engine  "running  idle." 
reasons  for  all  necessary  operations. 


Give 


EXERCISE  125» 

Assuming  that  the  engine  is  running,  explain  carefully  how 
to  bring  the  car  into  "third  speed  ahead." 

•Exercises  124,  125,  and  126  are  baaed  upon  automobile  operation.  Both  boys  and 
girls  usually  are  eager  to  learn  how  to  run  an  automobile.  It  would  be  profitable  to  take 
the  class  to  the  street  for  a  demonstration.  Teachers  who  do  not  understand  driving  will 
be  repaid  in  three  or  four  days  of  vigorous  application  by  the  class,  for  the  few  minutes 
required  to  master  the  theory. 


WRITING  DEFINITE  INSTRUCTIONS  223 

\ 

EXERCISE   1261 

In  three  paragraphs  explain  exactly : 

(a)  How  to  slow  down  while  passing  a  wagon  on  the  road. 

(b)  How  to  stop  suddenly  to  avoid  an  accident. 

(c)  How  to  go  down  a  very  steep  hill,  using  the  engine  as  a 
brake. 

EXERCISE  127 

Explain,  with  drawings,  the  proper  method  of  mounting 
an  automobile  tire.  In  a  paragraph  give  warnings  against 
certain  dangers  in  the  use  of  force. 

EXERCISE  128 

Write  five  paragraphs  on  the  subject:  Means  Advertisers 
Use  in  Attracting  Attention.  Be  sure  that  the  paragraphs  are 
on  entirely  different  phases  of  the  subject. 

EXERCISE  129 

Read  carefully  the  following  from  Victor  Hugo's  description 
of  the  field  of  Waterloo : 

Those  who  wish  to  picture  neatly  the  battle  of  Waterloo  have  only  to 
spread  on  the  ground  an  imaginary  capital  A.  The  left  leg  of  the  A  is 
the  road  to  Nivelles,  the  right  leg  is  the  road  to  Genappe,  the  tie  of  the  A 
is  the  sunken  road  from  Ohain  to  Braine-FAlleud.  The  peak  of  the  A 
is  Mont  St.  Jean;  there  is  Wellington.  The  lower  left  tip  is  Hougomont; 
there  is  Reille  with  Jerome  Bonaparte.  The  lower  right  tip  is  La  Belle 
Alliance;  there  is  Napoleon. 

Write  a  description  of  some  locality  you  have  in  mind — 
a  camp,  perhaps,  or  your  uncle's  farm.  Follow  the  general  plan 
of  Hugo,  but  do  not  imitate  the  sentence  structure  too  closely. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  compare  the  shape  to  a  letter;  Italy,  for 
instance,  is  like  a  boot  kicking  a  football — Sicily.  A  lake 
may  resemble  a  hatchet  or  a  pear  in  shape.  Make  your  descrip- 
tion so  plain  that  the  reader  will  readily  understand  what  you 
have  in  mind. 


1  See  footnote  on  page  222. 


224  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE   13O 

Explain  accurately  the  working  of  an  electric  doorbell. 


EXERCISE  131 

Girls:  Explain,  with  the  aid  of  simple  drawings,  how  to 
knit  some  article. 

EXERCI9B  132 

Boys:  Explain  definitely  how  to  dig  the  pit  for  a  camp  fire 
and  to  build  the  fire.  Use  a  drawing. 

EXERCISE  133 

Explain,  with  the  aid  of  drawings,  how  to  tell  three  different 
species  of  maples  by  the  leaves. 

EXERCISE  134 

Plan  a  project  for  beautifying  your  school  grounds,  and 
explain  your  plan  with  the  aid  of  a  drawing. 

EXERCISE  136 

Give  details  for  the  construction  of  a  large  American  flag. 

EXERCISE  136 

Explain  carefully  the  cold  pack  method  of  canning  fruit  or 
vegetables.  Illustrate,  if  possible,  with  pictures  cut  from  a 
magazine. 

EXERCISE  137 

Explain,  with  the  help  of  a  drawing,  the  working  of  the 
telegraph. 


WRITING  DEFINITE  INSTRUCTIONS  225 

EXERCISE  138 

Explain   carefully   the    method    of    making  camp  ration- 
heaters  out  of  newspapers  and  paraffin. 

EXERCISE   139 

Explain  the  working  and  the   merits    of   some  standard 
automobile  lock. 

EXERCISE  14O 

Explain  accurately  the  process  of  putting  a  bandage  on  an 
arm  or  head  wound.     Illustrate. 

EXERCISE  141 

Explain  accurately  the  correct  'method  of  seizing  a  drown- 
ing man  to  prevent  his  drowning  the  rescuer.     Illustrate. 

EXERCISE  142 

Girls:    Explain  the  process  of  folding,  cutting,  and  sewing 
a  comfort  kit  bag. 

EXERCISE  143 

Explain  why  the  passing  of  a  "low"  (low  barometric  area) 
is  usually  accompanied  by  rain  succeeded  by  cool  clear  weather. 

* 

EXERCISE  144 

Explain,  with  the  aid  of  drawings,  the  proper  way  to  bud 
or  graft  a  tree. 

EXERCISE   145 

Explain,  illustrating  if  possible,  the  operation  of  the  rotary 
mimeograph. 

EXERCISE  146 

Give  a  beginner  some  definite  advice  concerning  the  use 
of  the  typewriter. 


226 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


EXERCISE  147 


Using  the  accompanying  figure,  explain  in  a  simple  way 
the  working  of  the  steam  engine. 


CHAPTER   XVI 


TYPES  OF  ERRORS  IN  SCHOOL  THEMES 

149.  Review  of   Common  Errors.     The  ordinary  student 
does  not  go  far  in  composition  practice  till  he  realizes  that  in 
some  mysterious  way  he  never  can  understand,  he  makes  a 
good  many  mistakes.     He  may  know  perfectly  well  the  princi- 
ples violated,  but  his  attention  must  be  called  to  them — 
sometimes  more  than  once. 

The  exercises  of  this  chapter  are  taken  from  the  writing  of 
high-school  students.  Some  of  the  errors  found  in  them  have 
been  discussed  in  previous  chapters  of  this  book;  but  others 
are  here  treated  for  the  first  time,  and  all  are  so  common  and 
so  important  as  to  be  worth  careful  attention  in  direct  con- 
nection with  composition  practice.  Most  of  them  result  in 
some  kind  of  incorrect  or  ineffective  sentence  structure. 

150.  Failure  to  Make  a  Sentence.     Read  again  Section  10. 
Reread  your  written  work  to  be  sure  that  you  have  a  subject 
and  a  predicate  for  each  sentence.     Bear  in  mind  that  an  added 
thought  must  be  an  independent  sentence  unless  it  is  properly 
joined  to  the  preceding  thought.     Inexperienced  writers  often 
fail  to  indicate  thought  relations  which  are  very  clear  to  them, 
but  confusing  to  one  who  has  only  the  writing  to  depend  on. 
Correct  the  following: 

1.  Dogs  are  valuable  in  many  situations.    For  instance  the  blind  man  one 

sees  walking  down  the  street  with  a  dog  for  his  guide. 

2.  The  camel  which  roams  the  desert  and  can  do  without  water  for  several 

days. 

151.  "Grafted"  Sentences.    Sometimes  a  writer,  after  be- 
ginning a  sentence,  changes  the  form  before  he  has  finished. 
The  result  is  a  conflicting  construction.     Note  that  the  writer 
of  the  following  sentence  evidently  forgot  his  original  plan  after 

'     227 


228  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

a  pause  following  the  word  soldier.    Then  he  seems  to  have 
continued  after  rereading  the  American  soldier  only. 

One  instance  is  the  American  soldier  has  proved  his  worth  in  bat t  It . 

152.  Failure  to  Capitalize  at  the  Beginning  of  a  Sentence. 
This  is  almost  an  incurable  disease  in  some  cases  and  a  great 
source  of  trouble  to  teachers.  The  pupil  should  bear  in  mind 
that  foolish  errors  like  this  one  may  cost  him  dear.  Most 
employers  will  overlook  a  failure  to  spell  effervescence  correctly, 
but  few  will  tolerate  a  failure  in  the  first  rule  of  writing — 
putting  a  capital  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence.  If  you  are 
addicted  to  this  bad  habit,  make  every  effort  to  break  it  now, 
for  if  you  persist  in  it,  it  will  surely  bring  you  sorrow. 

EXAMPLE  of  this  error : 

"Return  it  tomorrow/'  Jones  said  he  went  away  whistling. 


RCISE  148 

Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Standing  in  front  of  saloons  is  another  bad  habit  of  course  there  are 

always  a  few  fellows  in  the  crowd  who  drink. 

2.  I  took  my  seat  reluctantly  as  soon  as  I  had  sat  down  I  felt  better. 

(Add  a  conjunction.) 

3.  It  was  cold  that  day — a  day  which,  unless  you  had  overcoat  and 

mittens,  you  suffered  sharply.     (Add  a  preposition.) 

4.  He  said  he  could  not  like  her  faults  were  too  many. 

5.  The  uses  of  cement  are  many,  here  are  some  of  them. 

6.  How  it  started  I  cannot  remember  whether  I  was  put  up  to  it  or  not. 

7.  Sometimes  a  girl  "lets  out"  something  which  was  confidentially  told 

to  her.    Probably  when  with  a  crowd  of  girls. 

8.  She  must  be  a  believer  in  suffrage.    Because  every  woman  has  the 

welfare  of  her  nation  at  heart. 

9.  He  was  told  that  we  would  come  hack.    Certainly  the  next  day. 

10.  He  is  the  kind  of  man  that  if  he  should  get  into  a  fight  with  a  man  of 
his  size  he  would  hack  down.     (Omit  one  word.) 

153.  Failure  to  Complete  Words.  Often  an  error  in  writing 
may  be  traced  to  careless  pronunciation.  For  example,  the 
pupil  pronounces  ask  for  both  present  and  past,  and  accordingly 
does  not  vary  the  word  in  writing;  or  he  fails  to  write  a  final 


TYPES  OF  ERRORS  IN  SCHOOL  THEMES  229 

letter  that  is  not  prominent  in  pronunciation.  The  following 
sentences  illustrating  this  trouble  are  from  the  themes  of 
second-year  high-school  pupils : 

The  mother  thank[ed]  the  stranger. 
The  man  ask[ed]  for  water. 
They  stopped  for  the[y]  were  hungry. 
,  He  went  an[d]  came  at  will. 
When  you  lose  you[r]  way  in  the  woods  .... 
I  use[d]  to  go  skating. 

154.  The  Repetition  of  Words.     In  general  one  should  not 
repeat  an  important  word  while  the  memory  of  that  word  is 
still  strong. 

EXAMPLE  of  bad  repetition: 

Three  fishermen  set  out  to  set  their  nets  just  at  sunset. 

Words  are  often  repeated  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  however, 
especially  in  parallel  constructions.  It  is  impossible  to  make 
positive  rules  as  to  repetition;  practice  only  will  teach  a  writer 
to  avoid  a  sameness  of  sound  in  one  case  and  to  seek  it  in 
another. 

EXAMPLE  of  repetition  for  emphasis: 

When  that  little  dog  got  home  he  was  a  sorry  little  dog. 

155.  Use  of  Too  Many  Words.     General  wordiness  and  a 
typical   correction   of  the   fault   may   be   illustrated   by  the 
following: 

(Wordy)  (Improved) 

One  night  with  some  friends  we          With  some  friends  we  had  to 
were'  coming  home  from  a  dance      walk   home   one   evening   from   a 
which  was  given  at  a  place  about      dance     given     two     miles     away, 
two   miles   from   where   we   were       (Seventeen  words.) 
residing  and  which,  as  we  had  no 
buggy  or  vehicle  in  which  to  be 
conveyed  home,   necessitated  our 
walking.     (Forty-four  words.) 

156.  Double  Narrative.     Do  not  take  valuable  time  to  tell 
an  unimportant  thing  twice.     Sometimes  it  is  wise  to  repeat  an 


230  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

idea  in  order^to  emphasize  it  or  to  give  the  reader  a  somewhat 
different  point  of  view,  but  repetition  due  to  vague  though^  or 
a  childish  fear  of  leaving  something  unsaid  is  always  bad. 

EXAMPLE:  Then  we  had  breakfast.  After  we  had  eaten  our  break- 
fast my  cousin  suggested  that  we  take  down  the  tent.  After  we 
had  taken  down  the  tent  .... 

How  many  times  are  you  told  of  breakfast?    Of  the  tent? 

It  is  much  better  to  leave  sonn -tlmm  to  the  reader's  imagi- 
nation. Compare  the  preceding  puerile  narration  with  the 
following  passage  from  a  composition  of  a  pupil  in  the  same 
class: 

It  is  necessary  to  hit  the  nail  cleanly;  at  first  with  a  light, sharp  stroke, 
then  with  force;  After  you  have  missed,  hold  the  finger  in  warm 
water  for  ten  seconds  .... 

Just  as  it  is  in  bad  taste  to  explain  a  joke,  so  it  is  in  a  sense 
impolite  to  assume  that  the  reader  needs  all  small  things  ex- 
plained to  him. 

EXERCISE  149 

Criticize  and  correct  the  following: 

1.  People  build  houses  now  after  odd  plans.    A  house  should  be  built 

to  house  people  rather  than  to  resemble  a  dog  house  and  should  be  a 
sensible  house  in  every  way. 

2.  We  ate  our  dinner  ravenously  as  we  were  very  hungry.     (This  telling 

of  the  obvious  is  characteristic  of  weak  students.) 

3.  My  uncle  suggest  that  we  go  to  a  pitcher  show. 

4.  When  you  want  a  thing  badly  why,  go  after  it.     (Not  a  question.) 

5.  When  my  cousin  visited  me  last  summer  we  thought  we  would  take  the 

car  and  go  to  Jackson  Park  to  see  the  scenery. 

157.  Lack  of  Symmetry.  To  make  half  of  a  sentence  active 
and  the  other  half  passive  results  in  a  lack  of  symmetry,  just 
as  different  systems  of  pruning  on  opposite  sides  of  a  tree  would 
leave  it  unbalanced.  Likewise  a  phrase  balanced  against  a 
clause,  or  an  infinitive  balanced  against  a  gerund,  will  produce 


TYPES  OF  ERRORS  IN  SCHOOL  THEMES  231 

a  lack  of  symmetry;  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  a  violation 
of  parallelism  or  balance. 

(Bad]  *  (Improved) 

I  have  many  friends:  some  by  in-           I  have  many  friends:  some  I  have 

stinct  and  others  have  been  tried  found  by  instinct,  and  others  I  have 

and  found  true.  learned  to  know  by  trial. 

In  the  bad  example  above,  the  incomplete  clause,  some  by 
instinct,  is  opposed  by  the  complete  clause  beginning  with  others. 
In  the  following  sentence  a  participial  phrase  is  balanced 
against  a  complete  member  of  the  compound  sentence.  Cor- 
rection may  be  made  in  two  ways — by  making  the  inconsistent 
parts  both  participial  phrases  or  both  clauses. 

The  train  left  the  track  at  Maysville,  killing  several  men,  and  it  tore 
up  the  ties  for  two  hundred  yards. 

Criticize  the  following  sentence.     Correct  it  in  two  ways. 
He  began  yelling  with  all  his  might  and  to  throw  water  on  the  fire. 

EXERCISE  15O 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences,  making  them  symmetrical. 
For  instance,  if  there  are  two  clauses,  both  modifying  the  same 
word,  make  them  conform  to  the  same  model. 

1.  He  planned  to  spend  his  vacation  in  two  ways:  to  play  tennis  regularly 

and  he  would  then  take  a  swim  each  day. 

2.  He  was  a  good  man — the  kind  of  fellow  who  attends  to  his  own  business 

and  he  was  kind  to  his  family. 

3.  He  was  healthy,  happy,  and  had  two  brothers. 

4.  We  found  the  farm.    They  were  boiling  down  sap  and  sirup  was  being 

made. 

5.  Meeting  one's  obligations  promptly  and  to  pay  all  debts,  moral  as  well 

as  in  money  matters,  was  his  resolve. 

6.  The  history  tells  of  the  success  and  death  of  Wolfe.    (The  trouble  here 

is  not  primarily  a  lack  of  symmetry  in  construction,  but  success 
and  death  are  so  dissimilar  in  class  that  they  should  not  go  with  one 
preposition.) 

7.  A  small  patch  of  rubber  is  cut  and  then  add  cement  to  the  tire  and  the 

patch.  (This  is  perhaps  the  most  common  error  of  this  kind.  The 
first  part  is  passive  and  in  the  third  person;  the  second  part  is  active 
and  in  the  second  person.) 


232  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

8.  Causes  of  obscurity: 

(a)  Misplaced  words. 

(b)  Omitting  a  and  the. 

(c)  By  failing  to  make  the  constructions  symmetrical. 

(d)  The  reference  is  uncertain. 

[This  is  a  remarkable  example  of  variation  where  there  ought  to  be 
similarity.  In  (a)  there  is  a  noun  construction;  in  (b)  a  participial 
construction;  in  (c)  a  gerundive  phrase;  in  (d)  a  complete  sentence.] 

168.  Confusing  Use  of  Pronouns.  Avoid  a  needless  change 
from  third  or  first  person  to  second  person.  Such  a  change 
usually  amounts  logically  to  introducing  a  new  character,  since 
he  or  I  cannot  possibly  be  you. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

At  12  o'clock  I  eat  my  lunch.  It  At  12  o'clock  I  eat  my  lunch.  It 
takes  sometimes  a  long  time  to  get  sometimes  takes  me  a  long  time  to 

what  you  want.  get  what  I  want. 

^ 

One  reason  for  this  error  is  the  frequent  use  of  you  in  such 
a  vague  and  general  way  that  it  really  means  third  person — 
is  equivalent  to  the  indefinite  pronoun  one.  In  general  it  is 
unwise  to  employ  you  in  writing  unless  an  address  to  the  reader 
is  intended.  When  the  indefinite  third  person  is  really  meant, 
one  is  preferable,  but  excessive  use  of  it  should  be  avoided. 

(Awkioard)  (Better) 

One  should  take  care  of  one's  One  should  take  care  of  his  teeth 

teeth  if  one  expects  to  keep  one's  if  he  expects  to  keep  his  health, 
health. 

Do  not  allow  yourself  to  think  of  his  and  he  in  this  use  as 
masculine  only;  they  refer  to  mankind  in  general,  hence  to 
both  sexes.  And  above  all  do  not  refer  to  the  indefinite 
singular  one  by  the  plurals  they  and  their.  (See  Section  59.) 
The  rule  as  to  the  agreement  of  a  pronoun  with  its  antecedent 
in  number  must  never  be  forgotten. 

EXERCISE  151 

Explain  the  errors  and  make  corrections  in  the  following 
sentences: 

1.  When  one  gets  into  a  boat  nowadays  you  don't  know  whether  you  are 
going, to  get  out  or  not. 


TYPES  OF  ERRORS  IN  SCHOOL  THEMES  233 

2.  When  Sunday  comes  some  people  take  their  book  and  sit  down  and  read. 

3.  One  must  be  exceedingly  careful  when  he  is  discussing  religion  or 

politics  unless  you  know  the  person  you  are  talking  to. 

4.  He  knew  some  one  would  steal  his  gate  if  they  had  a  chance. 

5.  The  motion  picture  has  great  influence  on  me  at  times.     They  teach  me 

a  lesson. 

6.  Too  many  persons  are  willing  to  jump  on  a  person  when  they're  down 

and  out. 

7.  The  bear  goes  into  its  den  in  the  winter  and  in  the  spring  they  sally 

forth  lean  and  hungry. 

8.  If  a  woman  laughs  loudly  on  the  street  men  are  always  ready  to  talk 

about  them. 

9.  The  cat  caught  its  tail  in  the  door  and  broke  it. 

159.  Illogical  Phrasing.     The  following  sentence  contains  a 
statement  that  is  not  strictly  true.     To  test  its  accuracy,  find 
the  subject,  the  verb,  and  the  predicate  noun. 

Some. prices  we  can  mention  at  the  sale  are  a  good  six-year-old  cow 
at  $115. 

A  little  thought  will  show  you  that  the  sentence  is  absurdly 
illogical  because  it  says  that  "some  prices  are  a  cow." 
Note  another  example: 

English  is  where  I  fail. 
Is  English  where]  i.e.,  a  place? 

160.  Questions  of  Tense.     Changing  the  tense  within  the 
narration  of  an  event  is  of  course  illogical  unless  there  is  actual 
change  in  the  time  referred  to.     It  is  impossible  for  something 
both  to  have  occurred  in  the  past  and  to  be  occurring  at  present. 
Such  confusion  of  tense  as  the  following  sentence  illustrates  is 
very  crude: 

We  go  forward  in  the  train  and  listen  to  some  college  boys  singing. 
"Forty-third  Street,"  hollered  the  conductor.  Several  people 
get  off. 

It  is  seldom  advisable  for  the  inexperienced  writer  to  use 
the  present  in  telling  about  something  that  actually  happened 
in  the  past.  Great  authors  have  been  able  to  use  the  so-called 


234  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

historical  present  effectively  at  times,  but  this  fact  does  not 
help  the  novice  in  composition. 

A  different  sort  of  tense  difficulty  is  to  be  found  in  the 
following: 

I  met  an  old  chum  of  mine  who  had  opened  a  grocery  store  a  month 
HP. 

Note  that  ago  is  past  only;  had  opened  is  the  past  of  the  past, 
i.e.,  past  perfect.    Correct  the  sentence. 

Foreigners  sometimes  say,  "I  live  in  America  five  years." 
What  should  they  say? 

161.  Confusion  Between   Direct  and   Indirect    Quotation. 
Direct  quotation  employs  the  exact  words  of  a  speaker.    Every 
direct  quotation  should  be  set  off  by  quotation  marks  and  should 
begin  with  a  capital  unless  very  short  and  informal  (see  Section 
Mi).     Indirect  quotations  report  the  thoughts,  merely,  of  a 
speaker,  in  the  words  of  the  reporter.    No  special  capitals  are 
needed  and  no  quotation  marks. 

(In  correct )  (Correct ) 

I  said  yes  I  would  go.    (Direct  ill  go."  (Direct) 

and  indirect  at  the  same  time)  I  said  I  would  go.  (Indirect) 

162.  Failure  to  Paragraph  Conversation.     Pupils  are  often 
careless  about  giving  a  separate  paragraph  to  each  speaker  in 
conversation  (see  Section  147).    It  adds  greatly  to  ease  of 
reading  to  have  every  change  of  speaker  appear  at  once  to  the 
eye;  and  no  feeling  of  a  need  of  economy  in  paper  should  cause 
the  writing  of  conversation  in  mass.    Work  that  is  too  closely 
crowded  always  makes  an  unfavorable  impression  on  the  reader. 

163.  Troubles  in  Beginning.    Students  often  feel  that  some 
"general  remarks"  are  necessary  at  the  beginning  of  a  com- 
position, but  this  notion  is  usually  wrong.     A  little  observation 
will  show  that  most  good  short  stories  "plunge  right  in"  and 
the  best  practical  articles  begin  at  once  with  discussion  of  the 
subject.     The  writer  of  a  business  letter  who  feels  that  he 
must  have  an  "introduction"  generally  wastes  both  his  own 
and  his  readers'  time,  and  makes  a  bad  impression.     It  is,  of 


TYPES  OF  ERRORS  IN  SCHOOL  THEMES  235 

course,  necessary  that  the  first  sentences  be  self-explanatory, 
but  if  the  student  will  start  directly  with  the  subject  he  means 
to  discuss  he  will  find  writing  much  easier. 

164.  Miscellaneous  Errors.  Do  not  omit  words  necessary 
for  complete  grammatical  expression.  Be  sure  that  you  have 
all  the  a's  and  ike's.  Do  not  omit  the  subject  of  a  sentence 
on  the  theory  that  people  will  understand  what  the  subject  is. 
The  following  sort  of  incompleteness  is  inexcusable  in 
anything  except  notes  or  a  diary: 

Went  to  church  Sunday.     Saw  Mary  and  Edith  the  first  thing. 

On  the  other  hand,  avoid  the  use  of  words  that  have  no 
place  in  the  grammatical  structure  of  the  sentence. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

John  he  plays  ball  all  day.  John  plays  ball  all  day. 

Or:  He  plays  ball  all  day. 

Note  that  there  are  two  subjects  for  gives  in  the  following 
sentence.  How  can  you  correct  it? 

An  automobile  is  a  machine  which  when  it  runs  well  it  gives  great 
pleasure. 

Avoid  errors  of  association.  Bringing  suddenly  together 
two  incongruous  ideas  is  usually  funny. 

EXAMPLE:     Mrs.  Bartlett  sang  "Sing  Me  to  Sleep,"  after  which  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Jones  preached  a  sermon. 

EXERCISE  152 

Criticize  and  correct  the  following: 

1.  Father  sat  at  the  head  of  the  table  that  night  as  usual.      "Mary," 

he  said,  "Why  don't  you  wear  your  hair  down  your  back?"  I  felt 
it  was  coming  so  I  said  I  just  wanted  to  see  how  it  would  look. 
"Well,  you  can't  look  at  it  yourself,  can  you?"  he  asked. 

2.  She  went  to  the  store  without  permission  after  which  she  tells  the 

teacher  she  had  toothache. 

3.  A  relative  pronoun  is  where  a  pronoun  has  an  antecedent  and  also  a 

place  in  its  own  clause. 

4.  Why  people  are  always  hard  up,  in  my  opinion,  is  largely  due  to  the 

changing  of  fashions.  (Be  sure  that  your  subject  is  definite.  A 
loosely  expressed  thought  makes  a  poor  subject.) 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

5.  Many  men  work  in  the  open  air  or  other  muscular  positions. 

6.  I  see  where  a  man  found  a  skeleton  in  an  old  trunk. 

7.  Arson  is  when  one  sets  fire  to  a  house  with  intent  to  destroy  property. 

8.  I  goes  over  to  him  and  I  said,  "You're  anotl 

9.  Letter  H  is  the  service  brake.    (Explanation  of  a  diagram.) 

10.  Take  the  train  which  says  Englewood. 

1 1 .  When  Mother  saw  it  she  asked  me  what  did  I  put  in  it. 

12.  Mary  got  a  position  for  eight  dollars  a  week. 

13.  But  he  replied  "That  a  glass  or  two  wouldn't  hurt ." 

14.  I  was  here  six  months  already.    (Heard  from  the  foreign-born.) 

EXERCISE  153 

Correct  the  following  sentences.  They  illustrate  common 
errors.  It  is  more  than  likely  that  many  of  these  errors  may 
sometimes  have  been  made  by  you,  since  they  are  all  taken 
from  themes  of  high-school  pupils. 

1.  Mother  said  put  toothache  gum  on  it.     (Sec.  161.) 
•J.  1  le  removed  the  hands  from  the  clocks  and  threw  them  (Sec.  158)  into 
the  river. 

3.  The  hunter  sold  his  horse  because  he  was  hungry.    (Sec.  158.) 

4.  When  the  current  is  turned  on  it  takes  a  strong  nerve  to  get  the  coin 

from  the  water  especially  if  it  is  cold.    (Sec.  158.) 

5.  We  had  to  wait  until  a  policeman  came  along.    Finally  a  kind  old 

policeman  came  along.     (Sec.  154.) 

6.  It  started  to  turn  so  cold  we  turned  up  our  coat  collars.     (Sec.  154.) 

7.  All  I  can  do  is  sit  around  and  try  to  read  something  my  great-grand- 

father wYmld  throw  in  the  fire.     (Sec.  160.) 

8.  I  did  not  like  to  go  up  the  stairs  at  night  as  I  would  hear  all  kinds  of 

noises,  it  being  of  course  my  imagination.     (Sec.  158.) 

9.  It  was  a  funny  thing:  my  grandfather  and  grandmother  died  on  the 

same  day.     (Sec.  164.) 
10.  How  this  first  started  I  don't  know.     (Sec.  155.) 

EXERCISE  164 

Criticize  the  following: 

1.  It  seems  strange  that  when  one  sleeps  overtime  you  should  feel  all  the 

more  sleepy.  I  once  read  an  article  by  a  great  doctor  in  which  he 
said  "every  minute  a  person  sleeps  overtime  they  are  giving  off 
vitality  rather  than  putting  it  on."  (Sec.  158.) 

2.  I  got  over  that  for  I  thought  I  was  able  to  lick  any  of  the  bad  men  I 

use  to  read  about.    (Sec.  153.) 


TYPES  OF  ERRORS  IN  SCHOOL  THEMES  237 

3.  "And  I  won't  do  that  again."     "Do  what?"  said  the  girl  at  the  next 

locker.    "What I   why  I'm  so  tired  I  can't  tell  you  again."    "Tired! 
what  from?"    (Sec.  162.) 

4.  Supper  had  been  served  some  hours  ago.     (Sec.  160.) 

5.  Father  sat  on  the  couch  reading  his  evening  paper;    mother    sat 

nearby  sewing,  while  I  sat  in  a  solitary  condition  by  the  window. 
(Sec.  164.) 
(There  is  an  error  in  compounding  a  word  in  5.     Can  you  find  it?) 

6.  Sister  has  lost  her  key.    She  didn't  want  to  disturb  us  when  she  came 

home  so  she  asked  me  to  take  my  key. 

7.  Another  thing  is  when  I  want  a  different  dress  than  she  wants  me  to 

have  why  it  is  always  her  that  wins.     If  I  was  only  big!     (At  least 
four  errors;  Sees.  159,  75,  62b,  and  50b.) 

8.  You  may  rest  assured  that  I  did  so  gladly  and  resolving  never  to 

mount  a  horse  again.     (Sec.  157.) 

9.  We  went  home  with  here  where  we  might  change  our  clothes.1 

10.  It  was  on  New  Year's  Eve  and  a  crowd  of  us  girls  were  going  out.     I 
was  to  go  to  one  of  their  houses  to  meet  them. 


EXERCISE  155 

Why  are  the  following  sentences  wrong?     Criticize  them  and 
explain  fully  your  criticism. 

1.  The  dog  followed  our  wagon  until  we  reached  the  farm  house  in  safety. 

(Two  meanings.) 

2.  I  was  not  sure  what  they  [tomatoes]  were,  but  I  thought  they  were 

apples.  So  my  aunt  went  out  of  the  room  for  a  short  time  and  I 
bit  one.  (Is  the  aunt's  going  out  of  the  room  due  to  the  girl's  mis- 
take? What  word  makes  it  so  appear?) 

3.  I  did  not  think  I  had  time  to  get  back  to  school  before  the  night 

school  opened.  When  I  was  sure  what  little  chance  I  had  of  get- 
ting them  [rings  left  in  the  wash  room]  would  be  gone.  (Sec.  10.) 

4.  I  was  a  little  girl  and  my  Mother  always  told  me  to  stay  near  home. 

(Sec.  114.     Would  the  sentence  be  correct  if  my  were  omitted?) 

5.  A  crowd  of  girls  and  myself  planned  to  put  up  our  lunch  and  go  to  the 

park.     (Sec.  65c.) 

6.  When  quite  small  my  grandfather  and  I  went>  visiting  down  at  the 

farm.     (Sec.  84.) 

7.  At  last  we  found  it  [a  suitcase]  in  the  front  car  with  some  friends  of 

ours.     (Sec.  164.) 

JThis  sentence  contains  an  error  due  to  allowing  the  spelling  of  a  following  word  to 
influence  what  one  writes. 


•J:w  VOCATIONAL  ENGUSH 

8.  My  mother  took  me  down  town  where  I  tried  on  hats,  finally  I  selected 

one  I  thought  1  liked.     (Sec.  152.) 

9.  We  took  it  back  alright  and  was  very  happy  when  I  got  home  that 

evening.    (Error  in  spelling;  Sec.  52.) 

10.  At  about  9:30  that  evening  a  trio  of  sun  burnt  dusty  faces  came 
strolling  in  to  West  Englewood.  (Sec.  159;  errors  in  failing  to 
compound  words.) 

EXERCISE  166 

How  would  you  correct  the  following? 

1.  A  girl  if  walking  down  a  dark  street  alone  and  hears  a  sound  close  to 

her  will  run  her  eyes  wide  open  without  once  looking  back. 

2.  Most  all  people  are  afraid  in  the  dark  some  for  instance  the  dope 

fiend  who  hides  himself 'in  fear. 

3.  Some  people  are  so  overcome  with  fear  in  the  dark  that  they  are 

afraid  of  their  shadow. 

4.  One  unfortunate  day  I  did  something  that  other  children  have  often 

done  and  that  was  played  hooky. 

5.  One  of  the  most  exciting  days  I  have  ever  had  occurred  when  about 

eight  years  old. 

6.  My  father  got  passes  to  shows  and  etc.  free.    (Two  errors.) 

7.  I  hesitated  about  going  on  the  coaster  because  mostly  all  people  that 

came  down  look  as  white  as  ghosts. 

8.  When  I  got  to  the  other  side  I  was  to 'call  out  one  two  three. 

9.  The  new  horse  would  stumble  every  few  steps  he  took.    (Sec.  155.) 
10.  She  never  thinks  of  asking  me  if  she  can  wear  my  things. 

EXERCISE  157 

Correct  the  following,  explaining  carefully  the  errors: 

1.  I  was  taught  not  to  go  anywhere  without  getting  permission  from 

mother  or  some  one  older  than  me. 

2.  In  the  mean  while  mother  was  looking  for  me. 

3.  This  made  John  so  furious  that  it  was  dangerous  to  be  around  him. 

(Preposition.) 

4.  It  must  be  nice  to  be  big  and  work  downtown  like  Mary  does.     (Con- 

junction.)        x 

5.  My  big  Sis  is  a  boss.    When  she  has  company  on  Sunday  night  she 

thinks  she  has  exclusive  right  to  the  parlor  and  us  younger  kids 
have  to  move  to  the  back  regions.     (Sec.  62.) 

6.  I  dislike  to  scold  you  more  than  any  one.     (Sec.  82.) 

7.  In  going  over  the  year's  reports  a  gratifying  detail  has  appeared. 


TYPES  OF  ERRORS  IN  SCHOOL  THEMES  239 

8.  His  errors  are  very  obvious  and  quite  absolutely  unnecessary. 

9.  Never  eat  until  the  stomach  is  over-full.     (Two  meanings.) 

10.  The  horse  took  sick.     (Is  the  subject  the  actor?) 

11.  The  greatest  asset  any  boy  can  have  is  an  appreciation  of  and  a  power 

to  organize.     (Sec.  82.) 

12.  She  had  an  arm  full  of  flowers. 

13.  I  wanted  you  to  know  where  they  are  so  you  didn't  have  to  look  for 

them. 

14.  How  I  wished  we  didn't  come! 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  XVI 

1.  Why  are  the  faulty  word  groups  in  Section  150  not  sentences? 

2.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  "grafted"  sentence? 

3.  Why  is  failure  to  capitalize  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  a  very 
bad  error? 

4.  For  what  purpose  is  repetition  sometimes  a  good  device? 

5.  What  is  "double  narrative"? 

6.  Why  is  it  a  good  device  to  leave  considerable  for  the  reader  to  dis- 
cover for  himself? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  "errors  of  association"? 


CHAPTER  XVII 


THE  VALUE  OF  THE  WORD 

165.  Words  as  Tools.    The  carpenter  or  the  jeweler  is  to  a 
large  extent  dependent  on   his  tools.    With  accurate  and 
delicate  instruments  he  can  accomplish  admirable  work;  with 
dull  or  unsuitable  tools  it  would  indeed  be  an  exceptional  work- 
man who  could  succeed.    Among  the  important  tools  of  the 
business  man  are  words.    Some  men  find  themselves  lacking 
in  the  number  of  words  at  their  command.    Others  have  not 
learned  the  exact  uses  of  various  words  and  hence  often  try  to 
accomplish  a  desired  result  with  the  wrong  tool.    The  following 
pages  will  be  concerned  with  a  study  of  the  power  and  uses  of 
certain  of  these  instruments  of  business — English  words. 

166.  Misused  Words.    The  crudest  word  error  is,  of  course, 
the  use  of  a  wrong  word.    An  old  lady  looked  in  at  the  door  of 
a  country  store  and  made  the  following  request,  "If  any  of 
you  folks  sees  Dr.  Tompkins  please  inhale  him  for  me."    A 
coroner's  jury  is  on  record  as  reporting  that  "the  deceased 
came  to  his  death  by  assassinating  his  clothes  with  kerosene 
and  setting  them  afire."      Almost  all  of  us  are  guilty  of  mis- 
using words.    Among  many  such  errors  are  the  following:1 

1.  The  use  of  learn  for  teach. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

He  couldn't  learn  him  anything.  He  couldn't  teach  him  anything. 

2.  The  use  of  can  for  may. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

Can  I  go  now?  May  I  go  now? 

3.  The  use  of  again  for  against. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

Put  it  again  the  wall.  Put  it  against  the  wall. 

-^——^—^^—^  • 

'Some  misuses  of  words  have  been  treated  in  other  parts  of  the  book,  pages  43-46, 
84-87,  90,  91,  99,  100,  etc. 

240 


THE  VALUE  OF  THE  WORD  241 

4.  The  use  of  bring  for  take. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

May  I  bring  this  to  the  office?  May  I  take  this  to  the  office? 

5.  The  use  of  propose  for  purpose. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

I  propose  paying  my  own  way.  I  purpose  paying  my  own  way. 

6.  The  use  of  balance  for  remainder  or  rest. 

.  (Incorrect)  (Correct) 

I  spent  the  balance  of  the  day          I  spent  the  rest  of  the  day  swim- 
swimming,  ming. 

7.  The  use  of  posted  for  informed. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

He  is  well  posted  on  current  events.          He  is  well  informed  on   current 

events. 


EXERCISE  158 

The  following  sentences  contain  misused  words.  The  cor- 
rect word  for  each  misuse  is  to  be  found  in  the  list  following  the 
sentences.  Make  all  the  substitutions. 

1.  Mary  was  reticent  and  moody;  on  the  other  hand  Edith  was  hopeful 

and  thoroughly  ingenious. 

2.  We  were  facilitating  the  groom  upon  his  great  good  fortune. 

3.  Father,  while  not  staunchly  religious,  insisted  on  our  observation  of 

the  Sabbath. 

4.  Auntie  was  thoroughly  aggravated  by  my  action. 

5.  They  accused  the  driver  of  inhuman  treatment  of  his  team. 

6.  Elizabeth  answered  not  a  word  but  dropped  a  courtesy  and  retired. 

(The  spelling  is  allowed,  but  not  the  pronunciation  kurtesy.) 

7.  " Yours  truly"  is  a  better  complementary  close  than  " Yours  respect- 

ively."    (Two  errors.) 

8.  He  told  me  that  he  did  not  consider  onions  healthy. 

9.  Filling  his  sore  teeth  was  a  tortuous  process. 

10.  The  world  is  being  overwhelmed  in  a  catechism  of  war. 

11.  The  gift  was.  to  perpetrate  the  memory  of  the  giver. 

12.  Some  of  his  letter  was  depleted  by  the  censor. 

-3.  From  the  tower  they  obtained  a  pantomimic  view  of  the  estate. 


242  \ •(  >CATIONAL  ENGLISH 

14.  She  went  on  bequest  of  her  guardian. 

15.  He  was  an  honest  and  voracious  man. 

panoramic  torturing 

exasperated  healthful 

observance  behest 

inhumane  complimentary 

felicitating  deleted 

curtsy  (pref.)  perpetuate 

ingenuous  respectfully 

cataclysm  veracious 
EXERCfSB  160 

Use  in  sentences  all  words  cast  out  of  Exercise  158. 

167.  Our  Dulled  Sense  of  Word  Values.  Words  come  so 
easily  that  extravagance  results.  The  pupil  should  learn  to 
use  strong  words  only  when  the  thought  or  the  feeling  calls  for 
them.  The  practice  of  using  big  words  for  small  ideas  is  very 
objectionable  to  intrlli^rnt  hearers  or  readers;  besides,  it  dulls 
the  appreciation  of  word  values.  Through  much  misuse,  cer- 
taiu  common  words  seem  to  have  lost  their  essential  meanings. 

"How's  yer  wife,  Tom?"  said  one  American  to  another.        « 

"Wai,  she's  ben  enjoyin'  bad  health  most  o'  the  winter,  but 
last  week  she  complained  o'  feelin'  bet 

As  a  result  of  the  too  common  use  of  words  without  thought 
as  to  their  real  meaning,  every  sort  of  entertainment,  from 
Forbes-Robertson's  Hamlet  to  a  "slap-stick  movie,"  has  be- 
come a  show;  everything  pleasant  is  nice  or  fine  or  splendid; 
whatever  needs  repairs  is  fixed,  even  if  it  is  a  watch  that  must 
"keep  moving";  a  neighbor's  yard  is  unkempt,  though  the  word 
lit  (Tally  means  uncombed;  a  bunch  of  girls  are  mad  because  it 
rains  on  their  picnic.  Such  use  of  words  takes  all  definiteness, 
all  accuracy,  all  force  out  of  them. 

EXERCISE  16O 

What  words  in  the  following  sentences  are  not  suited  to  the 
ideas  they  are  meant  to  convey? 

1.  She  has  an  awfully  good  mother. 

2.  The  roads  were  terribly  muddy. 

3.  He  has  a  perfectly  divine  voice. 

4.  The  new  hats  are  disgusting. 


THE  VALUE  OF  THE  WORD  243 

5.  That  is  a  splendid  pen. 

6.  I  hate  fudge. 

7.  She  had  a  horrid  old  cat. 

8.  We  got  up  horribly  early  this  morning. 

9.  I  adore  light  hair. 

10.  I  just  love  olives. 

11.  I  loathe  this  year's  fashions. 

12.  It's  a  funny  thing  how  many  children  commit  suicide  in  a  year. 

Use  in  its  correct  sense  each  of  the  words  misused  above. 

168.  The  Pompous  Style.     People  who  have  read  and  ad- 
mired a  little  good  literature,  or  pretentious  literature  which 
they  suppose  to  be  good,  sometimes  get  the  notion  that  they 
can  write  in  a  "literary"  manner  by  avoiding  simple  and  natural 
words.     Thus,  instead  of  "wash"  we  hear  "perform  their  daily 
ablutions."     "Retire  to  his  couch"  is  used  for  "go  to  bed." 
Some  people  "perambulate"  a  while  before  "partaking  of  a 
sumptuous  repast,"  while  others  take  a  walk  before  dinner. 
.The  pompous  tone  of  these  expressions  is  very  objectionable, 
and  besides  they  are  utterly  worn  out.     A  good  rule  for  most 
writers  is  to  use  ordinary  words  for  ordinary  things,  particularly 
if  the  extraordinary  words  they  would  like  to  use  are  copied 

from  a  book. 

i 

169.  Trite  Phrases.     Expressions  that  have  been  too  much 
used  are  said  to  be  trite.    It  is  convenient  to  treat  such  expres- 
sions in  two  groups. 

(a)  Commercial  jargon.  A  large  number  of  regularly  used 
expressions  have  found  their  way  into  business  letters.  Some 
of  them  had  a  meaning  at  one  time,  but  have  long  ago  ceased 
to  be  more  than  forms.  Business  has  no  time  for  any  expres- 
sion which  will  not  bear  its  share  of  the  work.  Among  these 
useless  expressions  are  the  following: 

beg  to  advise  fine  line 

valued  favor  esteemed  favor  of  recent  date 

the  same  hoping  to  hear  from  you  in 

hand  you  due  time,  we  are 

beg  to  remain 

This  subject  is  treated  more  fully  in  Chapter  XXI. 


244  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

(b)  Hackneyed  expressions  of  a  more  general  character. 
The  love  of  personal  independence  is  believed  to  be  a  quality 
characteristic  of  Americans.  But  the  use  of  expressions  not 
our  own  is  hardly  in  keeping  with  this  tradition.  In  general 
we  should  avoid  using  language  belonging  to  others  quite  as 
much  as  we  would  avoid  wearing  other  people's  clothes.  The 
trite  phrase  is  not,  of  course,  grammatically  wrong;  it  is 
ineffective.  Personality  counts  very  much  in  modern  business. 
Trite  phrases  tend  to  become  impersonal  formulas,  and  are 
therefore  not  efficient.  Among  hundreds  of  these  expressions 
are  the  folio  wing: 

"I  don1!  care  what  they  call  me  so  they  "what  Paddy  gave  the  drum" 

call  me  for  dinner."  "favor  us  with  a  selection" 

"Being  neither  sugar  nor  salt,  I  didn't  "white  as  a  sheet" 

melt."  "1  shouldn't  like  to  be  in  your 
"knock  you  into  the  middle  of  next        shoes." 

week"  "last  but  not  least" 

"mad  as  a  wet  hen"  "conventional  black" 

"slow  as  molasses  in  January"  "bated  breath' 

(a  solo)  "so  low  you  can't  hear  it"  "piercing  scream" 

"shut  up  like  a  clam"  "dull  thud" 

"deader  than  a  door  nail"  "so  near  and  yet  so  far" 

"Children  should  be  seen,  not  heard."  "innocent  bystan<l»  r 

"estimable  young  lady"  "tin-  HUM  r  man" 

"the  best  laid  plans  of  mice  and  men"  "dreamy  waltz" 

"All  aboard !    If  you  can't  get  a  board,  "You'll  break  the  camera." 

get  a  rail." 

While  the  writer  should  avoid  most  expressions  which  seem 
second-hand,  he  need  not  strive  for  new  and  strange  expressions. 
The  best  English  for  everyday  use  is  almost  always  the  simplest. 

170.  Repetition  of  Thought.  One  of  the  most  important 
points  in  relation  to  words  is  whether  a  needless  number  of 
them  are  used.  It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  speaker  or  the 
writer  to  state  once  and  for  all,  accurately  and  in  a  form 
easily  understood,  whatever  he  has  in  mind.  To  repeat  a 
statement  ought  to  be  unnecessary  unless  the  subject  is  very 
difficult.  In  the  following  exercise  are  a  few  double  statements 


THE  VALUE  OF  THE  WORD  245 

due  in  most  cases,  it  would  seem,  to  a  fear  on  the  part  of  the 
writers  that  they  have  failed  to  make  clear  what  they  mean. 

EXERCISE  161 

What  words  or  expressions  may  be  omitted  in  the  follow- 
ing passages  from  student  themes? 

1.  The  most  important  duty  of  a  girl  is  to  mind  her  own  business  and  not 

interfere  with  other  people's  affairs. 

2.  She  should  not  go  along  the  street  and  talk  so  loud  that  other  people 

can  hear,  but  she  should  talk  in  a  low  voice. 

3.  He  was  later  sent  to  the  penitentiary,  not  for  that,  however,  but  for 

something  else.  4 

4.  Don't  go  down  the  back  stairs,  but  go  down  the  front. 

5.  Mrs.  Mason  came  home  Friday  evening  and  found  her  son  fighting  a 

burglar  who  had  entered  her  home  during  her  absence. 

6.  Convince  your  customer  that  he  must  buy  at  once  and  not  delay. 

7.  He  was  a  bad  boy  because  he  would  not  do  what  was  right. 

171.  Roundabout  Expression.  Another  type  of  wordiness 
is  due,  not  so  much  to  repetition  of  ideas  as  to  a  roundabout 
manner  of  expressing  them.  The  writers  who  are  guilty  of  this 
fault  seem  unable  to  reduce  expression  to  its  simplest  and  most 
direct  form. 

(Wordy)  (Improved) 

Last  summer  I  thought  I  would  While     at     my     uncle's     farm 

spend  a  month  on  my  uncle's  farm,  about    twenty    miles    from    La- 

which  is  situated  about  twenty          fayette,  Indiana,  last  summer,  I 
miles    from    Lafayette,    Indiana.  met  the  daughter  of  a  neighboring 

While  I  was  there  I  happened  to  farmer.     (Twenty-one  words.) 

meet  a  girl  who  lives  on  the  next 
farm  to  the  one  on  which  my  uncle 
lives.  (Forty-six  words.) 

After  you  have  written  a  sentence  or  a  paragraph,  question 
each  word  for  its  right  to  a  place.  Only  words  that  work 
should  stay. 

EXERCISE  162 

Use  fewer  words  in  expressing  the  thought  of  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  There  is  nothing  which  disgusts  one  so  quickly  as  insincerity. 

2.  The  sea,  which  was  of  a  dark  blue  color,  looked  cool. 


246  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

3.  Jones  and  Taylor,  who  have  their  office  at  312  South  State  Street, 

have  agreed  to  help. 

4.  He  lives  in  a  house  which  is  dark  green  and  which  is  on  the  corner. 

5.  Olson  is  the  most  promising  of  all  the  candidates. 

6.  A  house  used  for  school  purposes,  built  of  wooden  logs,  stood  at  the 

foot  of  the  hill. 

7.  Every  man  that  is  a  member  of  the  association  should  subscribe. 

8.  Reduce  the  following  from  thirty-six  to  twenty-three  words  without 

omitting  any  essential  idea:  "Chicago,  Monday,  Jan.  7.  Chicago 
had  the  worst  storm  it  has  had  in  ten  years  on  Sunday,  January  6. 
Transcontinental  trains  were  delayed  by  the  storm.  They  were  all 
from  one  to  nine  hours  late." 

172.  Superfluous  Words.  Obviously  there  is  no  waste 
greater  than  uselessness.  Yet  thousands  of  dead  words  are  run 
off  the  typewriters  of  busy  firms  every  day.  It  will  be  impos- 
sible in  this  narrow  compass  to  list  a  large  proportion  of  these 
*  extravagances.  The  following  exercise  may  serve  to  put  the 
student  on  his  guard.  He  will  probably  be  able  to  add  many 
more  expressions  to  th<»<r  listed  below. 

One  special  case  is  worth  separate  attention.  In  both 
speaking  and  writing  pmplr  oft.  n  IM-H'MI  a  "that"  clause  and, 
because  a  few  modifiers  follow  the  conjunction,  repeat  it  farther 
along  in  the  sentence,  as  in  the  following: 

He  had  often  promised  me  that  after  he  had  accomplished  his  purpose 
that  he  would' "take  life  easy.1' 

EXERCISE  163 

Which  words  are  unnecessary  in  the  following  common 
expressions? 

erase  it  out  school  will  close  at  2  P.M.  so  as 
this  here — that  there  to  enable 

away  down  deep  not  a  one 

I'm  saving  it  for  to  have  Christ-  kill  it  dead 

mas.  admit  you  in 

latter  end  of  August  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city 

return  back  3  P.M.  Saturday  afternoon 

sang  a  vocal  solo  seldom  ever 

widow  woman  from  whence 

completely  surrounded  on  all  sides  had  ought  to  do  it 


THE  VALUE  OF  THE  WORD  247 

the  reason  was  because  Where  is  it  at? 
the  other  is  more  preferable  Later  on  they  joined  their  offices 
universally  by  all  people  together    to    the    mutual    ad- 
do  it  over  again  vantage  of  both, 
nearing  final  completion  I  shall  first  begin 
a  new  beginner  equally  as  guilty  as  you 
standing  alone  by  itself  smell  of  these  flowers 
get  off  at  about  Tenth  Street  still  have  it  yet 
take  it  off  of  the  table  smallest  of  any 

173.  Slang.  In  the  use  of  slang  the  main  requirement  is 
temperance.  There  are  very  few  people  who  do  not  use  it 
somewhat,  and  there  are  thousands  who  injure  themselves 
and  their  material  welfare  by  excessive  use  of  slang.  Some- 
times a  slang  word  is  valuable  in  expressing  a  shade  of  mean- 
ing. But  slang  is  dangerous;  it  is  salt  and  pepper,  not  bread 
and  butter.  It  should  be  used  consciously  and  the  user  should 
indicate  that  he  knows  it  is  questionable — for  example,  by 
quotation  marks  in  writing  and  by  special  emphasis  in  speech. 

Most  boys  allow  slang  to  dwarf  their  vocabularies.  It  is 
much  easier  to  say  that  a  story  is  a  "peach"  than  that  it  is 
subtle,  that  a  refrain  is  a  "peach"  rather  than  plaintive,  or 
that  a  girl  is  a  "peach"  rather  than  that  she  is  dainty  or  naive. 
And  so  subtle  and  plaintive  and  naive  never  enter  the  boy's 
vocabulary,  because  of  the  tyranny  of  an  inefficient,  plebeian 
slang  word. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  occasions  when  a  slang 
expression  can  be  very  useful.  Some  of  these  popular  expres- 
sions, because 'of  their  rugged  figure  or  their  pat  character- 
ization, pass  into  good  English;  others  remain  as  a  kind  of 
reputable  slang.  "Get  down  to  brass  tacks"  seems  to  be 
passing  into  a  reputable  English  idiom.  "He  couldn't  deliver 
the  goods,"  on  the  other  hand,  will  probably  never  be  king's 
English,  although  it  so  aptly  meets  a  want  that  it  may  become 
semi-reputable. 

The  point  for  the  student  to  remember  is  that  the  bold 
or  blase  type  of  slang  will  injure  him  materially  and  socially, 
that  a  moderate  use  of  the  better  slang  is  not  always  undesirable 


248  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

and  may  even  be  advantageous,  but  that  no  one  ought  to  use 
any  slang  unless  be  is  able  to  express  the  same  idea  in  clear, 
reputable  English. 

174.  Colloquial  Carelessness.  Many  people  speak  much 
more  loosely  than  they  write.  They  use  expressions  not 
found  in  good  writing  and  not  heard  from  careful  people. 
Among  these  colloquialisms  are: 

high-falutin  seems  like 

ornery  you  all 

wan  n  t  you  'uns 

bein's  it's  you  haint 

I  like  to  died  a-laughin'  aint 

looky  put  near  (pretty  nearlj  » 

horned  lookit  (look  at  this) 

Avoid  the  use  of  the  following  words: 

party  (for  one  person)  gents 

Doc.   \  Impolite  abbrevia-          pants 
Prof.  }      tions  of  titles 

EXERCISE  164 

Use  in  sentences  the  correct  words  for  which  the  following 
are  often  wrongly  used : 

stold  (past  of  steal)  blowed 

indecided  throwed 

aint  lengthways 

casuality  busted 

preventative  growed 

illy  alright 

secondhanded1  complected 

doubtlessly  pardner 

speciality  their's 

firstly  cuss 

disremember  cussed 

unbeknown  cussing 

dove  (past  of  dive)  bursted 

brung  leave  (after  just  as) 

suspicion  (verb)  haint 


hand 


»  L-ft-handed  and  high-handed  are  correct,  but  not  offhanded  or  underhanded.     Off- 
and  underhand  are  the  proper  forma. 


THE  VALUE  OF  THE  WORD  249 

het  attackted 

drownded  wonst  (or  oncet) 

conceity  nowheres 

ketch  overly 

ketcher  muchly 

again  (the  wall)  hisself 

EXERCISE  165 

The  following  theme  was  handed  in  just  as  it  is  printed. 
Its  greatest  fault  is  wordiness,  but  in  this  exercise  all  errors 
the  teacher  found  are  to  be  noted. 

PLEASURES    OF   A   DENTIST   CHAIR 

There  are  very  few  people  who  find  much  pleasure  in  going  to  the 
dentist.  One  day  when  I  had  a  tooth-ache  I  went  to  the  dentist,  but 
found  him  busy  so  I  made  myself  comfortable  by  going  in  the  reception 
room  and  making  myself  as  comfortable  as  possible  with  a  magazine  and 
easy  chair. 

I  was  beginning  to  get  interested  in  the  story  I  was  reading  and  for- 
getting my  tooth-ache,  but  I  begin  to  hear  mysterious  noises  from  the 
office.  There  were  cracking,  scraping  noises  not  very  pleasing  to  listen 
to,  and  I  don't  imagine  very  pleasant  to  the  patient  by  the  ah's  and  oh's 
coming  from  there.  i 

By  the  time  I  had  heard  this  my  tooth-ache  was  about  gone,  but  the 
dentist  comes  in  and  says,  well  you  are  next  to  be  amused.  He  might 
of  been  amusing  to  him  but  it  wasent  in  the  least  amusing  to  me. 

1.  Cast  out  unnecessary  words  in  the  above;  the  teacher 
found  twenty-two. 

2.  Find  a  change  of  tense. 

3.  Find  a  wrong  verb  form. 

4.  Find  a  preposition  in  the  place  of  a  verb. 

5.  Find  omission  of  quotation  marks  (three  cases). 

6.  Find  a  misspelled  word. 

7.  Find  a  small  letter  which  should  be  a  capital. 

8.  Find  a  wrongly  used  preposition. 

9.  Criticize  the  punctuation. 

175.  Interesting  Words.  All  living  languages  grow  con- 
tinually. Sometimes  words  change  their  meanings  in  the  course 
of  centuries,  leaving  a  history  that  is  interesting.  Insinuate 


250  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

meant  originally  to  wind,  or  work  into  (cf.  in,  into;  sinuous, 
winding).  Now  it  is, seldom  us«l  in  that  way  except  in 
literary  English.  Insinuate  ordinarily  means  to  give  an  im- 
pression, usually  a  bad  one,  by  leading  to  an  inference  rather 
than  by  direct  statement.  In  "Bedlam  broke  loose"  we  have 
an  interesting  word.  Bedlam  is  a  corruption  of  Bethlehem,  the 
name  of  the  first  insane  hospital  founded  in  London.  Wretch 
was  formerly  a  term  of  endearment,  and  the  most  common 
meaning  of  let  was  to  hinder.  These  are  but  a  few  illustrations 
of  the  interest  you  will  find,  whenever  you  consult  a  dictionary, 
in  noting  the  history  of  the  word  you  are  looking  up. 

EXERCISE  166 

What  history  or  interesting  fact  is  suggested  by  each  of  the 
following  words? 


volcano 
pullman 
macadamize 

lynch 
boycott 
guillotine 

victoria 

nickname 
calico 
M.-thodist 
villain 
journal 

Ciar 

r;m:irv 
tawdry 
sophomore 
prmic 
Cheapside  (a 

cologne 
thimble 
salary 
lunatic 
knave 
street  in  London) 

176.  Reading  as  an  Aid  to  the  Vocabulary.  During  the 
earlier  period  of  a  pupil's  life  he  will,  of  course,  have  read  the 
lighter  literature,  consisting  generally  of  stories  of  adventure. 
This  is  as  it  ought  to  be.  However,  after  he  has  reached  the 
age  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  his  taste  for  reading  should  undergo 
a  change. 

One  of  the  valuable  accomplishments  of  a  good  business  man 
is  a  fund  of  general  information.  He  may  to  advantage  know 
,the  main  facts  about  the  most  popular  sports.  He  should  be 
informed  as  to  current  events,  politics,  railroad  affairs,  crop 
conditions,  and  a  thousand  other  matters  that  affect  business 
in  general  and  his  own  business  in  particular. 

Obviously  he  cannot  get  his  information  from  mere  stories. 
His  reading  must  take  a  more  serious  turn.  He  should  begin  to 
take  an  interest  in  the  special  articles  appearing  in  the  better 


THE  VALUE  OF  THE  WORD  251 

magazines,  and  in  some  of  the  many  books  that  strive  to  keep 
us  all  abreast  with  the  progress  of  the  world.  He  will  learn 
therefrom  of  health  conditions,  labor  unions,  wars,  important 
people,  something  of  geography  and  history,  inventions,  dis- 
coveries, business  system,  and  the  things  of  life  worth  while. 
Naturally  his  vocabulary  will  be  much  broadened.  Wide  read- 
ing has  come  to  be  a  requirement  of  business  success. 

* 

EXERCISE  167 

Look  through  three  magazines  for  the  current  month. 
What  do  you  find  in  them  that  you  think  you  ought  to  know? 

List  five  magazines  that  you  consider  worth  while;  five 
which,  from  the  standpoint  of  information,  are  hardly  worth 
reading. 

What  is  the  nature  of  the  field  covered  by  the  following 
named  periodicals? 

The  Cosmopolitan  Outing                            Popular  Mechanics 

Ainslees  The  Atlantic  Monthly  The  Century 
The  Literary  Digest  TJie  World's  Work       Collier's 

The  Etude  The  Outlook                 Life 

The  Saturday  Eve-  System                           The  Appeal  to  Reason 

ning  Post  The  Country  Gentle-  The  Scientific  Ameri- 

Fhysical  Culture  man                                can 

Discuss  with  your  teacher  other  magazines  which  you  con- 
sider good. 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  XVII 

1.  Why  may  words  for  the  business  man  be  compared  to  tools  for  the 
carpenter? 

2.  Can  you  use  teach  correctly?     All  the  other  words  mentioned  in 
Section  166? 

3.  How  does  the  sense  of  word  values  become  dulled? 

4.  Why  is  a  pompous  style  bad? 

5.  What  is  triteness? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  superfluous  words?     Illustrate. 


262  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

7.  To  what  extent  is  it  safe  for  you  to  use  slang?    What  kind  of  slang 
is  particularly  harmful? 

8.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  coUoquialf 

9.  What  kind  of  magazine  articles  ought  a  boy  or  girl  of  sixteen  to 
read? 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

NEWSPAPER  AND  MAGAZINE  WRITING 

177.  Importance   of   the   Newspaper.    The   newspaper   is 
one  of  the  most  important  institutions  of  our  age.     Next  to  the 
school  it  is  the  world's  greatest  educator.     It  pictures  distant 
lands,    explains   inventions,    proclaims   discoveries,    and   dis- 
cusses policies.     It  acts  as  a  merciless  scourge  to  the  wrong- 
doer, and  is  itself  often  an  agent  of  unfairness  and  evil.     When 
dishonest  it  poisons  the  very  source  of  a  people's  information. 
Yet,  good  or  bad,  everybody  reads  it.     The  morning  paper  is 
delivered  at  the  breakfast  table,  to  be  followed  by  fresh  editions 
of  afternoon  papers  every  few  hours  during  the  day. 

The  chief  business  of  the  newspaper  is  to  tell  the  news  so 
that  we  can  understand  it.  While  there  are,  in  newspapers, 
conspicuous  examples  of  ungrammatical  English,  of  slang, 
and  of  other  objectionable  forms  of  expression,  the  better 
journals  are  on  the  whole  written  in  good  style.  The  reporter's 
task  is  to  give  information;  the  editor  insists  that  it  be  con- 
densed information:  the  result  is  generally  clear,  compact 
English. 

While  news  writers  are  usually  free  to  express  themselves 
in  their  own  way,  two  particularly  noticeable  methods  of  treat- 
ment are  common  in  news  articles.  Because  imitation  of  these 
methods  gives  interesting  and  valuable  practice  in  composition, 
they  will  be  explained  in  some  detail  in  the  following  sections. 

178.  Plain  Facts  with  a  "Lead."     When  the  nature  of  a 
piece  of  news  is  such  that  a  plain  statement  of  fact  is  what 
readers  will  particularly  appreciate,  the  writer  begins  with  a 
sentence — called  the  "lead" — in  which  he  states,  as  clearly  and 
forcefully  as  possible,  the  most  important  fact.     By  means  of 
this  sentence  the  reader  can  decide,  with  a  minimum  of  atten- 
tion, whether  it  is  worth  while  for  him  to  proceed  with  the 

253 


264  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

details.    For  instance,  suppose  a  reporter  has  the  following 
facts  about  a  school  fire: 

All  pupils  safe. 

Many  wraps  and  books  burned. 

Safety  due  to  fire  drill. 

Principal  and  teachers  cool  and  quick-witted. 

Origin  of  fire,  boiler  explosion. 

Parkersburg  High  School. 

Fire  broke  out  at  2:45  p.m. 

Building  burned  to  the  ground  in  forty  minutes. 

Fire  department  arrived  in  ten  minutes. 

There  was  no  panic. 

The  reporter's  task  is  to  get  these  facts  into  a  compact  para- 
graph which  will  give  all  the  information  in  the  fewest  words. 
The  first  sentence  or  "lead"  in  this  case  should  give  the  main 
fact.  Subsequent  sentences  should  give  details  in  the  order 
of  their  importance,  or  in  some  cases  the  order  in  which  they 
happened.  Clearly  the  most  important  bit  of  news  is  that 
the  Parkersburg  High  School  is  destroyed.  The  "lead"  then 
might  be: 

Parkersburg,  III.,  Dec.  12.— The  Parkersburg  High  School  burned  to 
the  ground  yesterday  afternoon  in  just  forty  minutes. 

The  order  of  importance  of  the  remaining  facts  would  be, 
possibly: 

Safety  of  pupils  due  to  drill  and  coolness  of  teachers. 

Loss  of  wraps. 

Origin  of  fire — time,  work  of  the  fire  department. 

The  completed  small  news  item  might  then  take  a  form 
similar  to  the  following: 

Parkersburg,  111.,  Dec.  12. — The  Parkersburg  High  School  burned  to 
the  ground  yesterday  afternoon  in  just  forty  minutes.  Despite  the  fierce- 
ness of  the  blaze,  every  pupil  escaped  unharmed,  owing  to  the  cool-headed- 
ness  of  Principal  Brown  and  his  teachers,  and  the  efficiency  of  their  fire 
drills.  There  was  no  panic,  yet  few  pupils  had  time  to  save  their  books 
or  wraps.  The  fire  started  at  2 :45  p.m.  from  an  explosion  of  a  boiler,  and 
although  the  fire  department  arrived  in  ten  minutes,  the  fire  was  beyond 
control. 


NEWSPAPER  AND  MAGAZINE  WRITING         255 

EXERCISE  168 

Organize  the  following  facts  into  a  one-paragraph  news  item. 
Pick  out  the  "lead"  and  make  it  the  first  sentence.  Use  as  few 
words  as  possible  (but  do  not  omit  a's  or  the's),  and  give  the 
number  of  words  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  The  three  pupils 
telling  the  whole  story  in  the  fewest  words  should  write  their 
work  upon  the  board  for  class  criticism. 

Sparta,  Ind.,  Nov.  9. — 
Boys  hunting  rabbits. 

Hammer  of  shotgun  caught  on  a  wire  fence. 
Boys  were  climbing  through  the  fence. 
Charles  Wright  shot  in  left  shoulder. 
He  may  live. 

He  was  shot  by  Michael  Rankin. 
Rankin  carried  Wright  two  miles  to  a  telephone. 
A  physician  was  called. 
Wright  was  taken  to  his  home. 

Probably  only  the  small  size  of  the  shot  saved  the  boy  from 
instant  death. 

EXERCISE  169 

Write  the  following  news  item  completely  in  fewer  than 
seventy-five  words. 

Westberg,  Ohio,  April  9. — 
A  railroad  wreck. 
The  engineers  of  both  engines  and  the  fireman  of  the  switch  engine 

killed. 

Five  passengers  injured,  none  seriously. 
Youngstown  express  ran  into  the  switch  engine. 
The  morning  was  very  foggy. 
The  express  had  been  fifteen  minutes  late,  but  had  made  up  time 

by  dropping  an  express  car  at  Horton,  instead  of  unloading  it. 
The  engineer  of  the  switch  engine  thought  he  had  time  to  cross  the 

main  track. 
Accident  at  8:15  a.  m.,  April  9. 

179.  Extended  News  Items.  If  a  news  item  longer  than 
one  paragraph  is  wanted,  the  subject  should  be  divided  into 
natural  divisions  and  a  paragraph  given  to  each.  Suppose  it 


•Jf>tJ  VOCATIONAL  EKGL1  s  1 1 

t    i 

is  desired  to  write  somewhat  more  fully  on  the  topic  of  Exercise 
169.    There  might  well  be  two  paragraphs: 

(a)  The  facts — the  collision,  deaths,  injuries. 

(b)  The  causes — fog,  making  up  lost  time. 

If  still  more  details  were  available,  it  would  be  possible  to 
make,  say,  five  paragraphs: 

(a)  The  collision — time,  trains  involved,  number  and  kind  of  coaches. 

(b)  The  damage — dead  (by  name),  the  injured,  extent  of  injuries,  aid 

(ton. 

(c)  Local  conditions — fog,  switch  tracks  on  both  sides  of  the  main  Im<>. 

Engineer  Brown  learns  from  Station  Agent  Cummins  that  the 
express  is  fifteen  minutes  late  out  of  Spellman,  five  miles  beyond 
Horton. 

(d)  Reasons  for  the  fast  train's  making  up  time. 

(e)  Station  Agent  Cummins  to  lose  his  job  for  giving  out  information 

to  the  operating  department.  Yardmaster  MacGregor  is  to  be 
questioned. 

EXERCISE   17O 

(a)  Write  a  news  item  of  one  paragraph  to  go  with  the  fol- 
lowing heading: 

Automobile  Bandits  Hold  up  a  Cigar  Store. 

(b)  Write  a  two -paragraph  news  item  suggested  by  the 
following  subject: 

^  »•  Freddie  Ryan,  unseen,  rides  half  a  mile  on  the  cowcatcher  of 
the  Limited. 

• 

(c)  Write  a  three-paragraph  news  item  with  appropriate 

headlines,  on  the  subject: 

Famous  French  war  aviator  Joubert  to  lecture  Friday  evening  at 
the  Walker  Opera  House.  (Give  some  imaginary  details  of  his 
history.) 

180.  The  "News  Story."1  The  purpose  of  what  we  have 
been  calling  the  "news  item"  is  entirely  practical.  Often,  how- 
ever, the  value  and  interest  of  a  piece  of  news  may  be  increased 
if  it  is  treated  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  short  story.  Here 

1  It  is  customary  among  newspaper  men  to  call  almost  any  sort  of  news  article  a 
"story,"  yet  it  seems  worth  while  to  discriminate  aa  in  Section  180. 


NEWSPAPER  AND  MAGAZINE  WRITING         257 

interest,  rather  than  information,  is  the  main  consideration. 
The  beginning  must  attract  attention,  of  course;  but  the  story 
will  usually  be  spoiled  if  the  main  point,  the  climax,  the  essence 
of  the  news,  is  given  at  the  beginning,  as  in  the  ordinary  sort 
of  "lead."  The  story  form  is  commonly  used  in  humorous  or 
very  unusual  and  romantic  articles.  To  distinguish  them  from 
plain  news  items  with  the  practical  sort  of  "lead,"  we  shall 
call  them,  for  convenience,  "news  stories."  The  following  is  an 
example: 

Dr.  Jacobs  will  probably  stop  his  engine  the  next  time  he  leaves  his 
car  on  the  street  while  making  a  call.  Yesterday  afternoon  he  left  his  new 
sedan  standing  for  a  few  minutes  on  the  hillside  in  front  of  Rice's  drug 
store,  with  the  engine  running  to  keep  the  car  warm.  Small  boys,  headed 
by  eleven-year-old  Claude  Ballard,  tried  out  the  effect  of  several  levers. 
The  result  surpassed  their  greatest  expectations  when  the  big  car  ran  down 
the  cigar  store  Indian  in  front  of  Kelley's  and  went  half  way  through  the 
plate-glass  window  of  the  Metropolitan  grocery  store. 

Note  that  the  last  sentence  states  the  main  fact.  The  first 
sentences  are  employed  in  leading  up  to  the  climax. 

Condensation  can  often  be  effected  by  omitting  details  at 
which  the  reader  has  a  chance  to  guess.  Note  the  skill  with 
which  the  writer  of  the  following  telephone  conversation 
omitted  all  of  one  speaker's  remarks: 

AS  TOLD   OVER  THE   TELEPHONE 

"Please,  marm,  gimme  number  two  hund'ed  an'  'leven  ....  Is 
dat  you,  Marse  Henry?  ....  Yessir,  dis  is  Abe.  I  dun  ring  yer  up, 
sir,  ter  tell  you  about  Shoe.  Shoe,  he  dun  balk  down  yer  on  Broad  Street, 
sir." 


"Bout  a  hour,  sir." 


"Yessir,  I  bus'  him  in  de  head." 


"I  dun  wear  de  whip  handle  out  on  him,  sir." 


"Yessir,  I  kick  him  'bout  eight  times,  sir." 


"Marse  Henry,  I  would  ha;  kick  um  some  mo;  but  I  hu't  me  big  toe 
on  um  de  las'  time  I  kick  um." 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


"Twis*  he  tail?    No,  sir,  not  dis  chile.       A  gemman  from  New  York, 
he  twis'  he  tail." 


"No,  sir,  I  don't  think  he  dead.    De  doctor  take  him  'way  in  de 
amb'lanr. 


"Yessir,  it  was  sure  foolish." 


"Marse  Henry,  I  done  set  fire  under  Shoe." 


"De  harness?    Dun  bu'n  de  harness  clean  off  urn." 


"De  cart?     Yea  sir,  dun  bu'n  de  cart  too,  sir,  all  'cept  one  wheel. 


"Yeasir,  I  git  de  feed  out  fust,  sir." 


"Marse  Henry,  is  you  want  me  to  come  back  to  de  store  and  go  to 
work,  or  mus'  I  wait  for  Shoe  to  move?"1 


RCISB  171 

Make  a  short  "news  story"  to  fit  the  following  conditions: 
Hungry  burglar  sets  down  his  bag  of  valuables  to  eat  a  piece  of  mince 

pie  in  the  pantry  of  the  third-story  flat  at  6126  Pleasant  Avenue.    Mrs. 

Steffan  deftly  locks  the  pantry  door  and  telephones  the  police.     Nothing 

lost  but  the  pie. 

EXERCISE  172 

Make  a  "news  story'1  of  the  following,  ending  with  an 
explanation  of  what  is  being  done.  Give  details,  names,  etc. 

Many  poor  children  write  to  Santa  Glaus.  Postmaster  Bred  in  opens 
these  letters  and  puts  them  in  the  hands  of  people  who  will  play  Santa 
Glaus  to  the  little  ones. 

EXERCISE  173 

Change  the  following  "news  item"  into  a  "news  story:" 

Chicago,  Nov.  9. — Patrick  McGrath,  a  watchman  on  the  Pennsylvania 
elevation,  came  home  suddenly  last  night  in  time  to  attend  his  own  wake. 
In  a  switch  engine  accident  Monday  at  90th  Street,  a  laborer  was  killed. 
The  remains  were  positively  identified  by  Mrs.  McGrath  as  those  of  her 
husband. 


•••L."  in  "Walnuts  and  Wine,"  Lippincott'*,  Oct.,  1906. 


NEWSPAPER  AND  MAGAZINE  WRITING         259 

EXERCISE  174 

Change  the  following  into  a  simple  news  item  with  a  "lead": 

Little  Mary  Tolman  wept  bitterly  last  night  over  a  very  great  mis- 
fortune. Her  mother,  too,  could  hardly  keep  back  the  tears,  although  she 
strove  with  all  the  power  of  a  widow  who  has  faced  life  with  two  small 
children. 

Just  when  Mary  had  finished  school  and  secured  a  position,  adding 
eight  dollars  a  week  to  their  little  income,  this  misfortune  had  come  upon 
them.  Yesterday  afternoon  Mary  had  been  sent  hurriedly  to  the  bank 
with  three  hundred  dollars  collected  a  few  minutes  before  closing  hours. 
In  her  hurry  she  had  lost  her  handbag  and  the  money.  Frantic  with 
fear  and  grief,  she  had  not  dared  return  to  the  office. 

Some  one  rapped  at  the  door.  It  was  Mrs.  Barnes,  who  rents  three 
rooms  of  her  house  at  224  E.  43rd  Street  to  the  Tolmans. 

"Some  one  wants  Mary  on  the  phone,"  she  said. 

It  was  a  stranger,  Mrs.  Louise  Eastman,  a  nurse  in  the  Ingleside 
Hospital,  with  the  message  that  the  handbag  and  contents  were  safe. 

Query:  How  did  Mrs.  Eastman  get  Mrs.  Barnes's  telephone  number? 
Is  it  desirable  to  explain  all  details?  What  should  be  omitted? 

EXERCISE  175 

Make  a  "news  story'7  of  the  following: 

At  the  close  of  the  Easter  concert  of  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra 
last  night,  Hans  Mahl,  a  poorly  dressed,  gray-haired  man  about  seventy 
years  old,  was  found  unconscious  in  a  gallery  seat.  He  was  probably 
starving,  and  the  climb  had  been  too  much.  He  died  at  the  Holy  Cross 
Hospital  an  hour  later.  Papers  found  upon  him  proved  that  he  had  once 
been  the  conductor  of  the  Municipal  Orchestra  at  Strassburg. 

181.  The  Editorial.  Probably  the  simplest  type  of  editorial 
takes  the  form  of  a  sermon  with  a  news  item  "lead"  as  a  text. 
The  sermon,  of  course,  need  not  be  religious;  in  fact  it  is  seldom 
so,  but  is  concerned  generally  with  politics  or  public  policy. 
An  example  of  a  simple  form  of  editorial  follows: 

In  the  Alexian  Brothers'  Hospital  yesterday  afternoon,  little  Charlie 
Myers  died  of  hydrophobia.  He  had  been  bitten  by  a  stray  dog  while 
playing  in  the  street. 

How  long  are  the  people  of  this  good  city  going  to  tolerate  stray 
dogs  at  large?  True,  we  already  have  an  ordinance  making  muzzling 


L'tio  \  <  M  ATIONAL  ENGLISH 

•  • 

of  all  dogs  compulsory,  but  it  is  not  enforced.  The  adage  has  it  that 
everybody's  business  is  nobody's  business,  but  it  certainly  ought  to  be  our 
affair  as  a  great  and  rich  city  to  see  that  every  stray  dog  is  killed  and  every 
other  dog  in  the  city  properly  muzzled. 

Note  that  the  condition  which  inspired  this  editorial  is 
simply  the  "lead"  of  a  news  item.  Of  course  the  "text"  is  not 
always  exactly  in  the  form  of  a  "lead/'  but  in  most  cases  the 
text  could  easily  be  put  into  the  form  of  a  news  item. 

EXERCISE  176 

Write  a  two-paragraph  editorial  on  the  following  news  item: 

Chicago,  July  11.— Dr.  Raymond  Stettson  of  the  Health  Depart- 
ment stated  before  the  Ridge  Woman's  Club  today  that  fully  sixty  per 
'  cent  of  the  children  in  Chicago  under  sixteen  years  of  age  have  teeth  which, 
for  the  sake  of  the  children's  health,  should  be  cared  for  by  a  dentist. 

Suggestion:  In  one  paragraph  urge  the  establishment  of  dental 
clinics  in  the  schools.  In  the  second  paragraph  urge  the  parents  to 
sacrifice  a  vacation  or  other  pleasure,  for  the  good  of  the  child's  health. 

EXERCISE  177 

Write  an  editorial  of  several  paragraphs  on  the  following 
news  item: 

La  Porte,  Ind.,  Oct.  16. — Charles  Miller,  a  near-sighted  fourteen- 
year-old  boy,  drove  a  big  automobile  through  a  crowd  of  children  in  front 
of  the  Raynard  School  today,  seriously  injuring  Edna  Bauer  and  Lillic 

Thomas. 

EXERCISE  178 

Write  an  editorial  on  the  following  news  item: 

A  policeman  found  eleven-year-old  Fred  Watson  and  twelve-year- 
old  "Butch"  Baer  hanging  around  a  pool  room  and  smoking  at  11:30 
Monday  night.  The  boys  were  taken  home,  but  their  parents  did  not 
seem  much  disturbed  by  the  matter. 

EXERCISE  179 

Let  every  member  of  the  class  bring  for  the  next  recitation 
a  news  item  (real  or  imaginary)  which  will  serve  as  the  text 
of  an  editorial.  From  the  ten  best,  let  the  class  choose  for  the 
subject  of  an  editorial  to  be  handed  in  the  next  day. 


NEWSPAPER  AND  MAGAZINE  WRITING         261 

EXERCISE  18O 

Let  each  pupil  clip  from  a  newspaper  an  editorial  (not  too 
long)  and  bring  it  to  class.  Let  him  practice  reading  the 
editorial  until  he  is  sure  that  he  can  make  it  interesting  to  the 
class. 

182.  Condensing  the  Magazine  Article.  Our  good  maga- 
zines are  full  of  articles  that  are  both  valuable  and  interesting. 
Condensing  or  summarizing  such  an  article  on  some  timely 
subject  is  very  valuable  practice.  The  primary  purpose  of  such 
a  report  is  to  bring  out  the  most  important  facts  of  the  original, 
but  it  is  a  failure  if  it  does  not  also  interest  your  classmates. 

First  read  the  article  very  carefully.  Try  to  grasp  the 
things  of  importance.  Next  put  them  in  their  best  order  so 
that  the  hearer  will  get  the  thoughts  in  a  succession  easily 
understood.  Plan  one  paragraph  for  each  important  point. 
Don't  try  to  report  on  an  article  which  you  do  not  yourself 
enjoy.  The  class  is  to  mention  promptly  any  failure  to  hear 
or  understand. 

EXERCISE  181 

Oral.  Report  on  some  invention  or  instrument  which  can 
be  illustrated  by  a  drawing  on  the  board. 

EXERCISE  182 

Oral.  Make  a  careful  examination  of  the  contents  of  a  copy 
of  the  Literary  Digest.  Explain  clearly  to  the  class  just  what 
the  publishers  are  trying  to  do. 

EXERCISE  183 

Make  a  written  condensation  of  some  interesting  article 
in  a  current  magazine,  using  the  method  explained  in  the  second 
paragraph  of  Section  182. 

EXERCISES  184,  185,  186 

Arrange  the  following  facts  (184)  as  a  news  item,  (185) 
as  a  news  story,  (186)  as  part  of  an  editorial  which  you  are 
to  write. 

College  prank. 
Hamlin,  Ohio,  Dec.  9. — 
Sophomores  haze  freshman. 


262  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

He  was  first  blindfolded. 

He  was  told  that  he  was  to  be  branded  with  a  hot  iron. 

An  icicle  was  drawn  across  his  bare  shoulders. 

He  is  in  a  sanitarium,  suffering  from  nervous  prostration. 

EXERCISE  187 

Answer  the  following  questions  from  observation  of  any 
issue  of  a  good  daily  newspaper: 

1.  On  what  page  are  the  editorials? 

2.  How  many  editorials  do  you  find? 

3.  List  the  subjects  of  these  articles. 

4.  Do  you  find  the  writer  referring  to  himself  as  If    As  wet    Why? 

5.  Outline  the  main  points  in  one  of  the  editorials. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

LETTER  WRITING 

183.  The  Growth  of  Business.     It  is  the  fortune  of  the 
present  generation  to  take  part  in  the  greatest  business  develop- 
ment of  all  time.    To  the  pupil  who  reads  this  page  the  type- 
writer and  the  multigraph,  the  illustrated  catalog,  and  the 
full-page  advertisement  must  seem  quite  the  established  order 
of  the  world — as  if  they,  like  trees  and  hills,  had  always  been. 
But  they  have  not  always  been — in  fact  mpst  of  them  are  less 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century  old.     With  the  telephone,  the 
automobile,  and  the  adding  machine,  they  have  made  the  last 
two  or  three  decades  seem  to  many  the  most  wonderful  of  all 
the  years.     Within  one  generation,  business  outgrew  its  three- 
story  shell  and  now  calls  for  twenty,  thirty,  and  even  forty- 
story  buildings  to  house  it.     In  a  single  generation  villages 
have  grown  to  cities  full  of  activity  and  opportunity.     Truly 
this  is  a  great  age  for  boys  and  girls. 

A  large  part  of  the  great  increase  of  business  is  the  result 
of  the  development  of  the  business  letter.  Letter  writing  is 
old,  reaching  back  beyond  the  dawn  of  history  when  men 
carved  messages  on  stone  and  wood.  But  modern  business 
letter  writing  is  young — so  young  that  the  most  effective 
methods  are  not  yet  sufficiently  understood. 

184.  Advantages  of  the  Letter  in  Business.     The  letter  has 
three  great  qualities — cheapness,  definiteness,  and  permanence. 
Often  a  hundred  letters  may  be  written  at  smaller  cost  and  in 
less  time  than  would  be  required  for  a  single  personal  call. 
Even  after  two  men  have  talked  over  a  matter,  oral  agreement 
is  not  considered  sufficiently  definite,  and  the  understanding 
is  usually  put  in  writing.    The  third  great  quality,  permanence, 
is  secured  through  the  filing  system,  which  involves  the  keeping 
of  carbon  copies  of  all  important  letters.     "That  will  be  all  right 

263 


L'tii  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

if  you'll  write  me  a  letter  about  it,"  says  one  man  to  another. 
He  wants  his  letter  files  to  carry  a  complete  history  of  tin 
transaction.  Some  business  houses  are  adopting  the  practice 
of  making  carbon  copies  on  the  backs  of  the  letters  answered, 
and  thus  saving  paper,  filing  space,  and  time. 

EXERCISE   188 

Write  a  composition  of  two  hundred  words  on: 
The  History  of  the  Postal  Service  in  America. 

Get  your  information  from  more  than  one  source.  Do  not 
under  any  circumstances  copy  an  entire  sentence  from  an 
encyclopedia  or  a  history. 

185.  Appearance  of  Business  Correspondence.     All  good 
firms  are  now  very  careful  about  the  appearance  of  their 
letters.    They  know  that  the  letter  represents  the  firm,  it- 
habits  and  its  policies.    They  know  that  poor  stationery  and 
slovenly  form   put  the  business   house   under  suspicion   of 
being  unreliable  and  careless.    No  one  realizes  today  more 
keenly  than  the  man  of  business,  that  first  impressions  of  men 
and  things  are  lasting,  and  he  knows  how  long  it  takes  to  cor- 
rect an  unfavorable  impression.    Routine  letters  of  whatever 
length  are  now  ordinarily  written  on  the  standard  8^  x  11 
paper,  which  allows  for  a  wide  and  orderly  margin,  and  con- 
tained in  the  standard  3J^  x  6J^  envelope  unless  the  letter  is 
too  bulky  for  three  foldings.    Sometimes,  for  very  short  letters, 
half  sheets  8J^  x  5J/£  are  used.    But  most  important,  these 
letters  bear  no  evidence  of  erasures  and  are  not  soiled.    Neither 
are  they  freakish  in  form  or  color.    The  printer  of  today  who 
is  not  an  expert  in  balance  and  taste  in  business  stationery 
can  not  long  hold  the  better  commercial  trade. 

186.  The  Writer  of  a  Letter.    There  is  an  old  saying  that 
water  cannot  rise  above  its  source;  obviously  a  well  written 
letter  must  have  had  a  competent  author.     Or  to  put  it  the 
other  way,  only  a  person  of  some  attainments  can  produce  an 
effective  letter. 


LETTER  WRITING  265 

The  first  quality  required  of  a  correspondent  is,  of  course, 
intelligence,  both  of  the  natural  kind  sometimes  called  common 
sense,  and  the  kind  acquired  by  education.  No  business  is 
entirely  separate  from  all  the  other  activities  of  the  world;  on  the 
contrary,  business  interests  cross  one  another  in  a  very  com- 
plicated way.  The  correspondent,  then,  needs  to  know  men 
and  measures  and  methods;  in  other  words,  he  must  be  well- 
informed. 

But  wealth  of  information  alone  is  not  enough;  the  corre- 
spondent must  be  able  to  write.  He  must  be  able  to  tell  what 
he  knows  in  an  orderly,  accurate  way,  so  that  others  can  under- 
stand. A  report  of  the  Bar  Association  of  the  City  of  New 
York  gives  as  one  big  reason  for  the  clogging  of  the  courts,  the 
inability  of  many  lawyers  so  to  frame  the  language  of  a  case 
that  the  courts  can  proceed  with  dispatch.  In  other  words, 
there  are  many  lawyers  who  cannot  put  what  they  know  on 
paper.  And  ther§  are  many  business  men  who  know  what  they 
mean  but  "can't  find  words  to  express  it."  Too  often  the 
pupil  in  the  public  school  leans  helplessly  against  the  seat  and 
asserts  that  he  knows  but  can't  explain.  Unless  he  learns  to 
explain  he  cannot  write  good  business  letters.  The  main  pur- 
pose of  this  book  is  to  aid  the  pupil  in  gaining  the  power  to 
make  other  people  understand. 

Another  desirable  quality  in  business  letters  is  human 
sympathy.  We  have  always  had  well-informed  men,  and  men 
who  could  express  themselves  in  a  masterful  way;  but  few, 
until  the  last  decade,  have  realized  the  tremendous  power  of 
human  sympathy  in  business  transactions.  Business  letters  of 
a  few  years  ago  too  often  followed  a  set  form;  "esteemed  favor," 
"the  same/'  "hand  you  herewith,"  "hoping  to  hear  from  you 
soon,  we  are,"  and  other  regular  phrases  were  very  common. 
Too  often  the  old  letter  began  somewhat  after  this  manner, 
"Yours  of  recent  date  rec'd  and  contents  noted,  and  in  reply 
would  say,"  etc.  The  chief  fault  with  these  stock  expressions 
(aside  from  grammatical  imcompleteness)  is  that  they  are  too 
formal  and  too  distant.  They  might  be  written  as  well  by 


266  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

an  enemy  as  by  a  friend.  Business  letters  must  be  friendly 
in  tone:  true,  you  need  not  stop  to  visit  with  your  ijmn;  on 
the  other  hand,  a  good  business  man  is  never  so  much  in  a 
hurry  that  he  cannot  be  thoughtful  and  courteous.  While 
business  as  a  whole  may  seem  heartless  and  harsh,  you  must 
not  forget  that  it  is  operated  by  men  and  women  who,  like  you, 
want  friends  and  appreciate  favors;  who,  like  you,  will  try  to 
return  a  smile  or  a  thoughtful  act;  and  if  you  would  succeed 
in  business  you  must  learn  to  think  of  the  stranger  as  your 
friend. 

187.  Qualities  of  a  Good  Business  Letter.     Business  letters, 
of  course,  touch  a  thousand  different  subjects  and  register  a 
hundred  different  moods,  but  there  are  several  qualities  which 
almost  every  one  of  them  ought  to  show.    The  most  important 
of  these  qualities  are  directness,  completeness,  individuality, 
punctuality,  and  courtesy. 

188.  Directness.    Without  being  so  abrupt  as  to  seem 
discourteous  (see  Section  192),  the  business  letter  should  come 
to  the  point  in  the  first  few  lines.    Most  business  men,  at  least 
those  worth  while,  are  busy  and  have  little  time  for  things  off 
their  usual  course.    You  must  not  neglect,  however,  to  make  the 
first  few  lines  self-explanatory,  for  in  most  cases  your  reader 
will  have  been  thinking  of  other  things  and  will  need  to  be 
directed  to  the  subject  of  the  letter. 

Examine  carefully  the  following  examples: 

(A  wordy  introduction)  (A  better  farm) 

Dear  Sir:  Dear  Sir: 

We  rearranged  our  office  last  We   ask   your  pardon  for  our 

week  in  order  to  take  care  of  the          delay  in  answering  your  letter  of 
increased  business  and  to  facilitate          May  24,  due  to  rearranging  our 
handling  the  new  business  which          office, 
will  doubtless  come  to  us  by  reason          (Eighteen  words.) 
of  the  new  State  law  regarding  Fire 
Insurance,  and,  in  the  consequent 
disorder,  we  are  sorry  to  say  we 

misplaced  your  letter  of  May  24.  • 

(Fifty-four  words.) 


LETTER  WRITING 


267 


(Criticism) 

(1)  The  introduction  is  too  long. 

(2)  It  contains  matter  of  doubtful 

interest  to  the  receiver. 

(3)  The  writer  should  never  force 

the  reader  to  wade  through 
an  advertisement  to  get  to 
the  subject. 

(A  poor  letter) 
Dear  Sir: 

The  goods  you  sent  our  firm  are 
not  up  to  the  standard  you  set  in 
your  letter. 

(Criticism) 

This  is  indefinite.  To  a  small 
merchant  it  might  be  clear,  but  to 
a  man  who  writes  fifty  letters  a 
day  will  come  these  questions — 
What  goods?  Which  firm?  What 
letter?  When  shipped? 


(Commendation ) 

(1)  This  opening  is  direct. 

(2)  It    makes    all    necessary 

planation. 


(A  better  form) 
Dear  Sir: 

The  chairs  you  sent  Miller  &  Co. 
Nov.  4  (your  invoice  No.  47123) 
are  not  up  to  the  standard  you  set 
in  your  letter  to  them  of  Oct.  28. 

(Commendation) 

All  data  necessary  to  set  the 
case  before  the  reader  have  been 
given.  It  may  cost  the  writer  a 
little  effort  to  get  this  informa- 
tion together,  but  the  resultant 
courtesy  and  directness  are  worth 
the  effort. 


Letters  will  be  very  much  more  direct  if  paragraphed 
correctly.  The  habit  of  putting  everything  concerning  one 
subject  into  one  compact  paragraph  aids  the  reader  in  "getting 
at"  the  matter  (see  Section  142). 

"When  you're  through  sit  down,"  is  good  advice  to  the 
letter  writer  as  well  as  to  the  after-dinner  speaker.  No  general 
"Hoping  to  hear  from  you,"  etc.,  is  needed  at  the  end  of  a 
letter,  merely  as  a  concluding  device  (see  Section  205). 

189.  Completeness.  It  is  often  difficult  for  us  to  realize 
that  a  topic  which  to  us  is  perfectly  clear,  may  be  obscure  to 
another..  There  are  two  general  causes  of  failure  to  give  all 
necessary  detail  in  a  business  letter.  The  first  cause  of  incom-. 
pleteness  is  the  result  of  a  failure  to  realize  the  difficulties  of 
the  "other  fellow."  You  may  know  a  hundred  times  as  much 
about  your  subject  as  he  knows  about  it,  and  you  must  "put 
yourself  in  his  place"  to  realize  just  what  explanations  should 


JUS 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


be  made.    For  instance,  your  language  may  be  entirely 
technical  for  him.    You  must  not  forget  that  you  are  writing 
to  the  receiver. 


(A  bad  lctt<r) 

The  Reverend  A.  K.  Jones 
Dear  Sir: 

In  re  my  coming  lecture  in  your 
church,  have  you  A.C.  or  D.C., 
and  will  the  ordinance  allow  a 
double  decker  of  two  twenty-fives? 


(CrOicwm) 
This  is  too  technical. 


(A  better  form) 
The  Reverend  A.  K.  Jones 
Dear  Sir: 

I  shall  need  a  little  information 
about  the  electrical  wiring  in  your 
church,  in  order  to  plan  equip- 
ment for  my  coming  lecture. 

Will  you  inform  me  whether 
your  current  is  direct  or  alternat- 
ing, and  whether  your  wiring 
meets  ordinance  requirements  for 
two  twenty-five  ampere  stereop- 
t  icons  from  one  socket? 
(Commendation) 

While  this  letter  is  longer,  the 
matter  is  made  about  as  phi  in  t<> 
the  ordinary  person  as  electrical 
language  will  permit. 

By  far  the  greatest  number  of  omissions  come  from  a  failure 
of  the  writer  to  think  through  his  subject — half  thinking.  It 
is  a  trick  of  the  human  mind  to  delude  itself  as  to  what  it  really 
understands.  You  can  test  this  fault  for  yourself.  You  may, 
perhaps,  think  that  because  you  have  seen  the  clock  thousands 
of  times,  you  can  sketch  the  face  (Roman  numerals)  roughly, 
from  memory.  Try  it.  The  chances  are  that  you  will  make 
at  least  two  errors.  Often  a  person,  because  he  knows  some- 
thing about  a  subject,  assumes  that  he  knows  a  good  deal 
about  it,  until  he  undertakes  to  explain  it  in  detail.  This  half 
thinking  has  caused  no  end  of  trouble  in  business  letters. 

Sometimes  half  thinking  takes  the  form  of  extreme  care- 
lessness. A  large  mail-order  house  finds  it  necessary  to  employ 
a  force  of  girls  to  examine  all  incoming  mail  to  make  sure  that 
each  writer  has  given  an  address  of  sufficient  accuracy  for 
shipping  purposes.  Even  with  this  precaution  and  the  addi- 
tional help  of  experts  in  the  'correspondence  departments, 


LETTER  WRITING 


269 


hundreds  of  dollars  come  in  with  orders  which  cannot  be 
directed  to  the  buyer.  Retail  shoe  merchants  have  a  deal  of 
trouble  with  letters  of  the  following  type : 


(A  bad  letter) 
Dear  Sir: 

Send  me  one  pair  of  shoes,  size  8. 
Enclosed  find  eight  dollars. 

(Criticism) 

No  style,  last,  material,  or  color 
is  stated.  Nothing  is  said  about 
the  purpose — is  it  a  dress  shoe  or  a 
work  shoe  that  is  wanted? 


(A  better  form) 
Dear  Sir: 

Send  me  one  pair  of  men's  shoes, 
Style  A242,  patent  leather,  size 
8D.  Enclosed  find  eight  dollars. 

(Commendation ) 

As  far  as  it  goes  this  letter  is 
complete  and  there  should  be  no 
difficulty  in  filling  the  order,  pro- 
vided, of  course,  that  the  address 
is  given. 

Before  sealing  a  letter,  examine  it  to  make  sure  that  it  is 
dated,  that  your  own  address  is  clearly  stated,  that  you  have 
omitted  no  necessary  detail  of  description  or  direction,  and 
that  the  language  is  such  that  your  correspondent  cannot 
misunderstand. 

190.  Individuality.  Some  years  ago  it  was  not  uncommon 
to  find,  occasionally  in  offices,  but  more  often  in  homes,  a  book 
called  by  some  such  name  as  The  Ready  Letter  Writer.  This 
book  was  intended  to  furnish  forms  for  business,  friendly,  and 
even  love  letters,  and  one  wishing  to  write  a  letter  had  only  to 
turn  to  the  index  to  find,  "a  parent  writing  to  a  school  teacher," 
"a  nurse  to  her  absent  mistress/'  "a  gentleman  to  his  banker," 
and  copy  what  he  found  printed,  with  a  few  necessary  changes 
to  fit  conditions.  Such  books  have  almost  disappeared,  for, 
needless  to  say,  no  one  today  would  think  of  using  a  form  letter 
for  friendly  correspondence.  Probably  nobody  regards  any 
two  people  with  the  same  degree  and  kind  of  esteem;  hence  a 
form  letter  would  fail  to  adapt  itself  to*  the  myriad  differences 
and  delicacies  of  friendship.  Business,  too,  had  its  Ready 
Letter  Writer ,  but  more  in  a  set  of  accepted  forms  and  phrases 
than  in  any  specific  publication.  These  forms  made  use  of 
"beg  to  advise,"  "in  reply  will  say,"  etc.  (see  Section  205). 
Like  their  social  contemporaries,  such  phrases  are  passing  out 


270  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

— for  one  reason,  because  they  are  adapted  to  no  particular 
individual,  and  hence  are  unsuited  to  modern  requirements. 

A  letter  to  a  farmer  should  differ  materially  from  a  letter 
to  a  banker — not  that  one  is  more  important  than  the  other, 
for  that  is  not  true;  but  because  their  likes  and  dislikes,  their 
work,  their  wants,  and  their  training  are  different.  Suppose 
you  were  trying  to  sell  an  automobile.  The  farmer  would 
want  to  know  about  its  lasting  qualities,  the  cost  of  operation, 
and  the  reliability  of  the  car  under  hard  service.  The  banker 
would  care  more  for  design  and  finish.  You  would  need  to 
hold  up  before  the  farmer  the  advantages  of  fast  transportation 
from  barn  to  field  and  from  the  farm  to  the  express  office  and 
the  grain  elevator.  Luxury  and  the  chance  to  see  the  open 
country  would  appeal  to  the  banker,  who  must  spend  hours 
indoors  when  he  would  rather  be  away  across  the  hills. 

It  was  said  in  Section  186  that  the  business  correspondent 
needs  common  sense  and  an  education.  He  needs,  in  addi- 
tion, a  wide  experience.  You  must  know  the  life  of  the  farmer, 
•of  the  country  physician,  of  the  miner,  and  of  the  sons  of  the 
rich,  in  order  to  discuss  with  them  their  own  interests.  You 
must  know  their  faults,  too,  and  especially  their  dislikes.  The 
farmer  is  sensitive  on  the  subject  of  the  loneliness  of  country 
life.  Avoid  mentioning  it,  at  least  directly.  The  lawyer 
dislikes  to  be  told  that  whoever  wins  he  doesn't  lose,  and 
the  teacher  will  resent  any  implication  that  he  is  not  a  success 
in  financial  matters.  You  must  "know  your  man"  and  use  the 
same  tact  in  letters  that  you  would  use  in  talking  to  him. 

One  of  the  best  ways  to  put  individuality  into  your  letters 
is  to  visualize  each  class  with  which  you  have  dealings.  When 
you  are  writing  to  a  farmer,  see  before  you  a  strong  man,  care- 
ful in  money  matters,  wary  of  tricks,  a  believer  in  hard  work 
and  the  value  of  his  own  labor,  and  write  him  a  personal  letter. 
The  merchant  is  a  man  of  means,  who  is  skilled  in  knowing  the 
wants  of  the  community  in  which  he  lives.  He  reads  many 
letters  and  must  be  appealed  to  through  proofs  of  success.  See 
him  as  he  stands  behind  his  counter  and — write  to  him. 


LETTER  WRITING  271 

Don't  forget,  then,  that  in  business  letter  writing  your 
mind  must  be  in  two  places.  You  must  see  distinctly  your 
own  plans  and  propositions,  and  then  you  must 'look  across 
the  miles  to  the  other  fellow  and  put  yourself  in  his  place  and 
learn  to  appeal  to  him  definitely  and  intelligently. 

191.  Punctuality.     One  phase  of  punctuality  is  really  only 
courtesy.     If  a  man  considers  a  subject  important  enough  to 
write  to  you  about  it,  you  are  bound  as  a  courteous  individual 
to  reply,  and  to  reply  soon.     Delaying  an  answer  is  a  kind  of 
slur — as  if  the  letter  or  the  writer  were  not  to  be  taken  seriously. 
Make  it  a  practice  to  reply  within  hours  rather  than  days. 
And  it  does  not  matter  much  whether  the  reply  is  important 
or  not.     Sometimes  a  reply  has  its  only  reason  in  courtesy. 
Some  one  has  done  you  a  favor — perhaps  you  have  done  him 
favors  before  and  you  and  he  are  only  even  now — and  you  could 
easily  accept  the  favor   quietly  without  feeling  ungrateful; 
but  it  is  good  fellowship  and  good  business  to  thank  him  in 
a  neat,  well  appointed  letter. 

There  is  another  reason  for  being  punctual  in  correspond- 
ence. A  man  gets  his  mind  set  on  some  project.  He  writes 
you  a  letter  while  in  this  mood.  But  as  things  crowd  in  upon 
him,  he  tends  to  lose  his  interest  in  that  particular  matter,  and 
if  you  delay  your  reply  sufficiently  long,  it  is  very  likely  to  find 
him  entirely  cold.  Or  perhaps  your  competitor  replies  quickly 
and  your  delayed  letter  reaches  the  scene  after  "the  deal  is 
closed." 

192.  Courtesy.     "Never  write  a  very  brief  letter  unless 
you  apologize  for  it,"  is  the  instruction  given  by  a  large  Chicago 
manufacturer  to  his  correspondence  men.     The  curt  letter  has 
a  tone  of  disrespect  which,  above  all  things,  must  be  avoided. 
It  would  be  possible  to  list  a  dozen  don'ts  touching  courtesy, 
but  a  more  profitable   paragraph   will  treat  of  its   source. 
Courtesy  springs  from  good  intentions  toward  all  men.     If  you 
are  cherishing  hatred  of  any  one,  if  you  are  accustomed  to 
complain,  or  criticize,  or  gossip,  you  will  be  handicapped  as  a 
correspondent.     Outside    of   business,    courtesy    consists,    for 


272  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

instance,  in  going  out  of  your  way  to  direct  a  traveler,  or  to 
inquire  about  a  sick  acquaintance.  Courtesy  in  business 
consists  in  mentioning  letters  or  order  numbers  to  save  your 
reader  trouble  in  tracing  a  transaction,  in  repeating  briefly  the 
substance  of  a  previous  correspondence  to  refresh  his  mind,  in 
enclosing  a  stamped  envelope  when  you  ask  an  unusual  favor, 
and  doing  various  thoughtful  things  by  which  one  man  can 
show  his  appreciation  of  another. 

Of  the  qualities  of  the  business  letter  just  treated— direct- 
ness, completeness,  individuality,  punctuality,  and  courtesy—- 
none makes  so  many  friends  in  the  long  run  or  produces  so 
much  business  as  courtesy. 

EXERCISE  180 

Discuss  in  cl&ss  the  following  questions: 

1 .  What  reply  should  be  made  to  the  man  who  says,  "Oh,  I  don't  care 
about  style — just  so  they  know  what  I  mean"? 

2.  Discuss  the  following:    "Letters  reveal  unmistakably  the  writer's 
education  and  cultivation;  that  'the  style  is  the  man'  is  never  truer  than 
in  letters." — Herrick  and  Damon's  Composition  and  Rhetoric. 

3.  What  is  the  basis  of  politeness?    Is  it  advisable  to  be  polite  in 
order  to  get  more  business?    Can  a  man  learn  politeness  from  books? 

4.  What  is  "half  thinking"?    Can  the  writer  expect  the  reader  to 
understand  unless  the  letter  originated  in  a  clear-cut  understanding? 
"It  takes  a  long  time  to  explain  something  you  don't  understand." 

5.  If  individuality  is  a  desirable  quality  of  a  letter,  why  not  use  square 
envelopes,  address  them  across  the  end,  and  have  them  made  of  pink  paper? 

6.  What  would  you  say  characterizes  the  gentleman  in  correspondence; 
i.  e.,  what  qualities  should  he  have? 

EXERCISE  19O 

Write  a  brief  letter  explaining  to  a  younger  brother  the 
qualities  of  a  good  business  letter. 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  XIX 

1.  How  long  has  the  telephone  been  in  commercial  use?    The  type- 
writer? 

2.  What  reasons  can  you  advance  for  the  tremendous  growth  in  busi- 
ness during  the  last  two  decades? 


LETTER  WRITING  273 

3.  What  three  advantages  has  the  business  letter?    Explain. 

4.  Why  is  the  appearance  of  a  business  letter  so  important? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  qualities  of  a  good  correspondent? 

6.  Can  you  name  the  qualities  of  a  good  business  letter? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  directness? 

8.  When  is  a  letter  complete? 

9.  What  must  be  the  condition  of  the  writer's  thoughts  to  lead  him 
to  dictate  a  complete  letter? 

10.  What  is  meant  by  individuality  in  a  letter? 

11.  Why  is  it  bad  business  to  delay  a  business  reply? 

12.  How  can  the  writer  show  courtesy? 


CHAPTER  XX 

DETAILS  OF  LETTER  FORM 

193.  The   Stenographer   and   the   Employer.     One  of  the 
really  hopeless  and  helpless  human  beings  is  the  poor  sten- 
ographer who  blots  and  misspells  and  mis-spaces  and  misimder- 
-t :  i  nds.    She  is  a  failure  at  the  only  thing  she  is  expected  to  do. 
Whether  it  is  her  fault,  or  the  fault  of  the  school,  or  the  fault 
of  her  parents,  or  of  sickness  or  poverty,  makes  no  difference 
when  she  brings  a  poor  piece  of  work  to  a  busy  man.    Whether 
or  not  she  deserves  censure,  one  thing  is  pretty  sure — she  will 
get  plenty  of  it.    A  busy  man  has  not  time  to  correct,  to  advise, 
and  to  instruct  his  stenographer,  and  it  would  be  bad  business 
for  him  to  undertake  teaching  in  addition  to  his  other  duties. 
The  girl  will  be  discharged,  to  begin  again  that  most  forlorn 
task — looking  for  another  position.    The  employer  will  try 
again  and  again,  until  he  finds  a  stenographer  whose  judgment 
and  knowledge  he  can  trust. 

Morever,  many  employers  are  careless  or  unskilled  in  com- 
position; their  letters,  if  written  exactly  as  dictated,  would 
make  a  bad  impression.  A  competent  stenographer,  therefore, 
should  be  able  to  correct  errors  and  improve  awkward  phrasing. 

There  would  be  fewer  incompetent  stenographers  if  all  knew 
the  accepted  principles  of  letter  form  explained  in  the  following 
pages.  These  are  matters  of  prevailing  custom;  serious 
departure  from  "good  form"  makes  a  writer  seem  careless  or 
crude. 

194.  The  Margin.    All  letters  should  have  a  substantial 
margin.    The  exact  width  is  largely  a  matter  of  taste,  but  not 
less  than  an  inch  and  a  half  on  8^  x  1 1  paper,  the  most  common 
business  size,  is  desirable.    The  width  and  arrangement  of  the 
margin  must  be  considered  with  relation  to  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  sheet,  just  as  the  mat  about  a  picture  is  related  to  the 
picture. 

274 


DETAILS  OF  LETTER  FORM 


275 


The  following  letter  illustrates  very  well  the  proper  balance 
of  writing  and  margin: 


^V10054  Wood  Street 
\Chicago.    Illinois 
^Aprll   23,    1917 

•xMr.   R.   E.  Tabor 
^Confluence.   Pa. 

Dears«r.  Tabor: 

"  I  recall  that  i 
in  1892  there  was  much  e: 
the  southwestern  part  of  the  state,  especially 
in  Somerset  and  Payette  counties .  I  have  since 
been  told  that  moat  of  this  has  been  logged. 


i  I  left  Pennsylvania 


cheap,  aay  along  the  Youghlogheny  River,  to  make 
reforestation  profitable?  I  am  expecting  now  of 
course  only  a  general  answer. 

N-X°urs  ver>y  truly, 


Note: 

1.  That  neither  the  heading  nor  the  signature  runs  into 
the  margin. 

2.  That  there  is  a  margin  at  the  bottom.     It  is  better  to 
use  a  second  sheet  than  to  crowd  the  lower  margin. 

3.  Study  the  dotted  line's.     Note  that  part  of  the  pleasing 
quality  of  the  arrangement  is  due  to  the  parallel  slant  of  the 
lines.     In  the  so-called  "block  form"  these  parallel  lines  are 
vertical. 


EXAMPLE  : 


I  Mr.  R.  E.  Tabor 
|  Confluence,  Pa. 
1  Dear  Sir: 


j  10054  Wood  Street 
|  Chicago,  Illinois 
!  April  23,  1917 


276  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE   101 

1.  Study  the  margins  (mats)  on  photographs  and  pictures 

(a)  What  is  the  relative  area  of  picture  and  mat?     Compute 
this  for  any  three  well-mounted  pictures. 

(b)  What  do  you  learn  about  the  lower  margin?     Is  it 
larger  or  smaller  than  the  upper  margin?    Measure  three 
mounted  photographs  or  pictures. 

(c)  Which  is  larger,  the  upper  or  the  lower  part  of  thi» 
printed  letters  B  and  St    What  is  your  conclusion  regarding 
lower  margins? 

2.  Does  it  pay  to  spend  time  and  money  for  decorative 
effect  only?    Look  about  you.    How  much  of  architecture  is 
decorative  only?    Why  does  a  church  have  a  spire?    What 
useful  purpose  is  served  by  the  buttons  on  a  man's  coat  sleeve? 
Would  not  a  plain  shirtwaist  keep  a  girl  just  as  warm  as  any 
other?    Why  should  we  spend  time  and  paper  on  margins, 
alignments,  and  form  in  letters? 

195.  The  Heading.  When  no  printed  letter-head  is  used, 
the  heading  should  give  three  things:  (a)  the  street  and  number 
(except  in  small  towns);  (b)  the  city  and  state;  (c)  the  date. 

EXAMPLE  :  10054  Wood  Street 

Chicago,  Illinois 
May  24,  1917 

Observe  these  general  instructions: 

1.  Write   your   address.    This   is   an   important   matter. 
Big  mail-order  houses  employ  mail  openers  to  examine  the 
incoming  letters  to  make  sure  that  the  writer  has  given  his 
address.    Where  the  address  has  been  omitted  they  try  to  get 
the  name  of  the  city  and  state  from  the  postmark  on  the 
envelope.     But  too  often  they  fail  and  the  customer  complains 
bitterly,  although  the  fault  is  really  all  his  own. 

2.  Don't  forget  the  date.     Many  letters  are  filed  by  the 
date  of  writing.    Sometimes  the  date  is  very  important. 

3.  Never  employ  figures  for  the  month.     Writing  5/24/17 
for  May  24,  1917,  throws  the  burden  of  translating  the  figures 
upon  the  receiver  of  the  letter.     This  increases  the  difficulty  of 


DETAILS  OF  LETTER  FORM  277 

filing  by  date,  since  every  date,  must  be  thought  out.  Your 
reader  will  not  appreciate  anything  which  saves  you  work  at 
his  expense. 

4.  Don't  forget  that  a  period  is  required  at  the  end  of  an 
abbreviation. 

5.  Commas    may    be    located    by    the    following    device: 
Suppose  the  heading  to  be  written  out  in  full  thus — 10054 
Wood  St.   [in]  Chicago   [in]  Illinois  [on]  May '24  [of]   1917. 
Replace  the  bracketed  words  with  commas,  and  the  punctuation 
will  be  correct. 

There  is  now  a  tendency  to  omit  punctuation  at  the  ends  of 
lines,  both  in  the  heading  and  in  the  salutation.  This  seems 
to  be  a  reasonable  tendency  because  the  tabulated  form  indicates 
that  each  new  line  is  another  word  group.  This  practice  is 
adhered  to  throughout  this  book.  There  are,  however,  two 
exceptions:  a  colon  is  used  after  Dear  Sir  (or  equivalent  words) 
in  the  salutation,  and  an  abbreviation  is  followed  by  a  period 
even  at  the  end  of  a  line. 

EXAMPLES:  Winfield,  Mass. 

Mr.  John  Jones  Dec.  22,  1910 

Creston,  Iowa 
Dear  Sir: 

6.  Write  May  24,  1881;  not  May  24th,  1881.     It  is  not 
necessary  to  write  th,  st,  or  d  after  a  date.     (It  may  be  neces- 
sary after  a  number — e.  g.,  3d  row;  or  in  the  body  of  a  letter — 
e.  g.,  your  letter  of  the  3d.) 

7.  It  is  better  to  write  out  city  names.    Abbreviations  of 
names  of  cities  are  not  well  known.       The  greater  accuracy  is 
worth  the  effort  and  besides,  abbreviations  in  business  letters 
have  fallen  into  disfavor. 

196.  The  Decorative  Heading.  Some  firms  are  willing, 
for  the  sake  of  the  appearance  of  their  letters,  to  go  to  con- 
siderable trouble  in  arranging  the  items  of  the  heading  in  a 
decorative  way.  In  general,  novelty  should  not  be  attempted 
by  any  but  persons  of  taste,  it  being  far  better  to  follow  the 
custom,  which,  in  most  cases,  is  founded  on  reason.  However, 


278  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

if  used  wisely,  the  following  arrangements  of  the  heading  will 
often  justify  the  extra  time  required: 

December  Wednesday 

Twelfth  August 

Nineteen  Twentieth 

Eighteen      January          1915 
Twenty-first 
Nineteen 
Eighteen 

December  Tenth  October  Sixth 

1916  Nineteen  Nineteen 

March 
Ninth 
1915 

November  FEBRUARY 

Fourth  NINE 

1914  1910 

197.  The  Person  Addressed.  In  business  letters,  always 
write  the  full  address  of  the  person  or  persons  to  whom  you  are 
writing,  at  the  beginning  of  the  letter.  Often  letters  are 
opened  by  people  for  whom  they  were  not  meant.  The 
address  and  name  will  help  to  set  the  reader  right. 

EXAMPLE  :  Mr.  Charles  M.  Clarke 

321  Forty-fourth  St. 
Des  Moines,  la. 

1.  Be  sure  to  give  every  person  a  title.  This  applies  also 
to  personal  firms.  Corporate  organizations  (that  is,  companies 
wit  h  such  a  general  name  that  one  loses  sight  of  the  individuals) 
are  addressed  without  a  title. 

EXAMPLES:  Dr.  A.  J.  Kemp 

Mr.  M.  M.  Wright 
Messrs.  Bell  &  Fisher 
But:  The  Standard  Oil  Company 


DETAILS  OF  LETTER  FORM  279 

Do  not  employ  two  titles,  except  for  churchmen. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

Mr.  Charles  M.  Clarke,  Esq.  Mr.  Charles  M.  Clarke  (The  form 

Dr.  Charles  M.  Clarke,  M.D.  Esq.  is  disappearing  in  America.) 

Dr.  Charles~M.  Clarke 
Charles  M.  Clarke,  M.  D. 
The  Reverend  (not  Rev.)  James  R. 
Stewart,  D.D. 

But  a  description  of  the  person's  position  may  follow  a 
name  preceded  by  a  title. 

EXAMPLE  :     Mr.  Henry  K.  Ewalt,  President 

Washington  Heights  Savings  Bank 
Chicago,  111. 

2.  Be  careful  to  write  the  addressee's  name  exactly  as  he 
writes  it.  This  is  one  of  the  finer  touches  of  politeness  and 
is  almost  sure  to  be  appreciated.  Suppose  the  addressee  signs 
his  name — 

Charles  M.  Clarke 

It  would  then  be  inadvisable  to  write  any  of  the  following 
forms : 

(a)  Mr.  Chas.  M.  Clarke 

(b)  Mr.  C.  M.  Clarke 

(c)  Mr.  Charles  M.  Clark 

Form  (c)  is  decidedly  impolite.  Extreme  care  must  be 
exercised  in  the  spelling  of  a  man's  name.  An  error  justifies 
the  inference  that  the  writer  has  paid  very  little  attention  to 
the  reader,  and  no  man  likes  a  slight  of  this  kind. 

In  some  cases  the  word  Company  is  written  out;  in  others 
it  is  abbreviated.  Try  to  remember  the  individual  use  (or 
look  it  up  when  in  doubt).  Note  the  following  correct  names: 

The  Crane  Company 
Central  Scientific  Co. 
The  Century  Co. 


280  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

3.  The  punctuation  and  arrangement  of  the  name  and 
address  should  be  as  follows  (unless  the  "block  form"  mentioned 
in  3,  Section  194,  is  used) : 

Mr.  Charles  M.  Clarke 
321  Forty-fourth  St. 
DCS  Moines,  Iowa 

4.  Do  not  allow  the  house  number  and  the  name  of  a 
numbered  street  to  come  together  as  figures. 

(Undesirable)  (Correct) 

321  44  St.     (Why?)  321  Forty-fourth  St.    (Note  the 

spelling  of  the  street  number.) 
321  W.  44  St.    (Why?) 

5.  When  the  "block  form"  is  used,  it  should  appear  in  both 
the  heading  and  the  address,  as  in  the  example  in  3,  Section  194. 

198.  The  Salutation.    Dear  Sir  is  the  common  business  salu- 
tation for  one  person,  and  Gentlemen,  or  Dear  Sirs,  for  a  firm. 

A  woman,  married  or  unmarried,  should  be  addressed  as 
Dear  Madam.  The  plural  is  Dear  Mesdames,  or  Ladies. 

The  forms  Dear  Mr.  Brown  and  Dear  Miss  Case  are  less 
formal  and  ordinarily  are  not  used  except  where  the  relation 
is  one  of  some  degree  of  friendship  or,  at  least,  acquaintance. 
However,  such  forms  are  being  employed  by  some  good  writers 
to  give  the  much  desired  friendly  tone.  When  business  is 
transacted  between  friends,  salutations,  etc.,  may  well  be 
governed  by  the  practices  of  friendly  letters.  Such  forms  as 
Friend  John  or  Friend  Jones  should  never  be  used. 

Dear  Sir,  Gentlemen,  etc.,  are  usually  followed  by  the  colon; 
less  frequently  by  the  comma.  The  salutation  should  begin 
flush  with  the  left  margin. 

199.  The  Body  of  the  Letter.     Some  writers  begin  the  body 
of  the  letter  with  paragraph  indention,  but  the  practice  of 
beginning  the  first  sentence  of  the  letter  immediately  below  the 
end  of  the  salutation  is  perhaps  in  most  favor. 

This  part  of  the  letter  is,  of  course,  the  most  important. 
Most  of  the  following  points  have  already  been  discussed  and 
are  repeated  here  for  review: 


DETAILS  OF  LETTER  FORM  281 

1.  Be  sure  that  you  understand  your  subject  fully. 

2.  Organize  the  subject;  i.e.,  plan  the  letter.     A  mental 
plan  may  be  sufficient  in  some  cases. 

3.  Bear  in  mind  the  interests  of  the  reader. 

4.  Come  directly  to  the  point. 

5.  Avoid  all  trite  phrases;  among  them,  same,  esteemed 
favor,  hand  you  herewith,  please  find  enclosed,  would  say  (es- 
pecially without  an  expressed  subject),  contents  noted,  beg  to 
advise,  etc. 

6.  Be  careful  of  your  sentence  structure;  i.e.,  your  grammar. 
Finish  all  words  and  all  sentences — save  rather  in  the  exactness 
of  your  expressions.     Avoid  abbreviations  unless,  you  are  per- 
fectly sure  they  are  used  by  the  best  writers  in  the  sort  of  work 
you  have  in  hand. 

7.  Be  sure  that  each  sentence  cannot  mean  two  things  and 
does  mean  one  thing. 

8.  Use  simple  words  and  plain  sentence  structure. 

9.  It  is  well  to  avoid  the  participial  construction  in  the 
last  sentence.     Hoping  to  hear  from  you  at  an  early  date,  etc., 
is  ineffective  because  it  has  been  overworked.    May  I  hear 
from  you  within  a  week?  or  I  shall  await  your  reply  with  interest, 
is  much  better.  * 

10.  Many  firms  use  paper  without  heading  for  second  sheets, 
but  number  the  sheets  and  write  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner, 
for  example,  To  A.  M.  F.  (initials  of  receiver). 

11.  A  short  typewritten  letter  is  preferably  double-spaced; 
but  a  letter  so  long  as  to  require  more  than  one  page  if  double- 
spaced  is  preferably  single-spaced,  with  double  space  between  . 
paragraphs. 

12.  It  should  be  the  ambition  of  every  man  who  writes  a 
letter  to  make  that  letter  entirely  his  own,  and  to  express  in  it 
his  exact  meaning  in  a  pleasant  way.     It  should  be  his  thought, 
phrased  in  an  individual  way,  from  the  salutation  to  the  con- 
clusion. 

200.  The  Conclusion.     The  most  common  ending  is   Yours 
truly.     It  is  proper  for  any  business  letter.     A  very  common 


JS2  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

error  is  the  capitalization  of  truly.    Only  the  first  word  of 
the  conclusion  is  capitalized. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct) 

Yours  Truly,  Yours  truly, 

The  conclusion  is  always  followed  by  a  comma. 

Truly  yours,  Yours  very  truly,  and  Very  truly  yours  are  com- 
mon endings  that  are  mere  variants  of  Yours  truly.  Sincerely 
yours,  Cordially  yours,  and  Faithfully  yours  are  proper  when 
there  is  some  friendliness  in  the  relations  of  the  correspondents. 
Yours  respectfully  has  recently  been  dropped  from  the  United 
States  Army  Manual;  but  it  or  some  variation  of  it  (Respect- 
fully yours  or  Yours  very  respectfully)  may  still  be  used  with 
propriety  in  communications  in  which  the  writer  wishes  to 
indicate  respect  for  a  person  or  group  of  persons  of  higher 
authority  than  himself;  e.  g.,  in  a  petition  to  a  school  board  or 
a  city  council. 

A  common  mistake  results  from  the  failure  to  make  the 
words  preceding  the  conclusion  a  sentence. 

(Incorrect)  (Correct  though  trite) 

Hoping  to  receive  more  of  your  Hoping  to  receive  more  of  your 

orders.  orders,  we  are, 

Yours  truly,  Yours  truly, 

201.  The  Signature.  Contrary  to  the  general  belief,  an  illeg- 
ible scrawl  is  easily  forged;  the  fact  that  it  is  indecipherable 
makes  forging  the  easier.  The  hardest  name  to  imitate  is  one 
written  plainly  in  a  bold  hand;  and  the  better  the  penmanship, 
the  harder  the  task.  Besides,  if  the  writer  fails  to  sign  his  name 
in  a  legible  hand,  he  may  embarrass  his  reader  in  the  reply, 
since  the  latter  will  not  want  to  risk  misspelling  the  name. 

Some  business  houses  have  their  letters  signed  with  the 
firm  name  typewritten,  under  which  are  the  initials  or  the 
name  of  the  writer  signed  with  a  pen. 

EXAMPLE:    Empire  Asphalt  Company 
By1  W.  B. 


lBy  is  preferable  to  per. 


DETAILS  OF  LETTER  FORM  283 

The  use  of  the  typewriter  in  signatures  is  of  doubtful  value. 
If  the  signature  is  not  important,  then  the  letter  is  of  little 
concern.  Some  business  men  look  for  the  signature  first;  if  it 
is  clear  and  forceful  they  read  the  letter.  If  the  letter  purports 
to  come  from  a  man  but  bears  his  signature  in  the  hand  of  a 
feminine  stenographer,  or  if  it  is  signed  by  some  clerk  in  a 
wavering  script,  they  pay  little  attention  to  it.  The  signature 
must  look  genuine;  except  in  form  letters  and  letters  depending 
for  results  on  mass  production,  rubber-stamp  signatures  are  a 
waste  of  time  and  money,  while  the  stamp  one  sometimes  sees, 
Dictated  but  not  read  by,  ought  not  to  be  used  if  it  can  possibly 
be  avoided. 

Women  should  sign  their  own  names.  Careful  writers 
always  avoid  giving  themselves  a  title  in  a  signature  even  to 
the  extent  of  putting  in  parentheses  a  title  needed  for  correct 
address. 

EXAMPLE  :     Mary  A.  Klein,  or 

(Miss)  Mary  A.  Klein 

Miss  can  be  omitted,  for  in  the  absence  of  indication 
to  the  contrary,  Mary  A.  Klein  is  assumed  to  be  unmarried. 
Mrs.  Fannie  B.  Hunter  is  understood  to  be  a  widow.  Mrs. 
W.  P.  Johnston  is  the  name  of  a  married  woman.  This  signa- 
ture is  not  generally  considered  in  good  form,  however;  a  wife 
should  sign  her  own  name  followed,  for  greater  precision  in 
address,  by  Mrs.  and  her  husband's  name  in  parentheses. 

(Bad  form)  (Correct  Jorm) 

Mrs.  W.  P.  Johnston  Effie  R.  Johnston 

(Mrs.  W.  P.  Johnston)  or  (Mrs. 
W.  P.) 

202.  The  Envelope.  Be  sure  to  balance  the  address  on 
the  envelope.  Writing  the  address  too  high  or  too  far  to  the 
left  always  gives  the  impression  of  inexperience.  The  punctua- 
tion on  the  envelope  is  like  that  at  the  head  of  the  letter. 
Some  firms  use  the  block  form  of  address — beginning  the 
several  items  directly  under  the  first. 


284  VOCATIONAL  . 

See  that  your  name  and  address  are  on  the  envelope.  I  Vr- 
sonal  stationery  is  often  seen  with  the  name  and  address  of 
the  sender  on  the  flap  on  the  back  ot  the  envelope,  where  it  is 
inconspicuous.  While  this  is  modest,  it  lays  too  much  of  a 
burden  upon  the  postal  employees.  The  following  is  a  good 
model  for  ;i<l<ln'>-in<j;  an  envelope: 


T.  R.  Haven 
5625  Green  St. 
Chicago 


Mr.  A.  If.  Jones 

Kankakee 

Illinois 


Odd-shaped  envelopes  and  those  having  flaps  of  unusual 
shape,  and  envelopes  of  unusual  or  striking  color,  should  be 
avoided. 

203.  Folding  the  Letter.  It  is  possible  so  to  fold  a  letter 
that  it  falls  open  when  taken  from  the  envelope  with  the  right 
hand.  This  is  of  course  a  small  matter,  but  the  reader  is 
always  pleased  to  note  little  evidences  of  the  writer's  con- 
sideration for  him. 

To  fold  the  8J^  x  11  sheet,  bring  the  bottom  upward,  but 
not  to  the  top,  leaving  a  quarter  of  an  inch  not  covered  by 
the  fold.  Next,  with  the  top  of  your  letter  at  the  left,  fold 
away  from  you,  a  little  less  than  one  third  of  the  distance. 
A  second  fold  should  fall  short  of  the  right  edge  by  half  an  inch. 
Turn  the  letter  over  and  insert  it  into  the  envelope. 

The  result  of  this  folding  is  ease  of  handling  for  the  reader. 
Most  envelopes  are  cut  along  the  top;  some  by  being  held  in 


DETAILS  OF  LETTER  FORM  285 

bunches  against  a  sandpaper  belt;  some  by  hand,  a  paper- 
knife  being  inserted  under  the  fold.  In  any  event,  the  reader 
may  be  expected  to  insert  his  right  hand  into  the  envelope  and 
withdraw  the  letter.  He  will  naturally  hold  it  by  the  right 
edge,  which  is  free  from  fold.  His  left  hand  will  quickly  and 
naturally  seize  the  top  of  the  sheetr  where  there  is  only  one 
thickness  of  paper,  and  the  letter  can  be  opened  by  a  quick, 
easy  motion. 

All  enclosures  of  money  should  be  clipped  to  the  letter 
sheets  so  that  there  can  be  no  chance  of  their  being  lost.  The 
sending  of  loose  postage  stamps  is  a  particularly  risky  and 
annoying  procedure. 

EXERCISE   192 

1.  Using   wavy   lines   in  imitation   of   writing,    show   the 
placing  of  a  letter  on  an  8^/2  x  11  sheet. 

2.  You  are  Harry  L.  Mays.     You  are  to  write  to  Louis  W. 
Thomson  of  1016  Fourteenth1  St.,  Butte,  Montana,  giving  him 
directions  for  reaching  your  home  from  the  railroad  station. 
Make  the  letter  short,  accurate,  and  clear. 

3.  Using  the  block  form,  write  to  the  University  of  Chicago. 
You  want  to  enter  the  University  in  the  fall.     What  informa- 
tion do  you  need?     If  you  have  several  questions  to  ask,  how 
do  you  show  that  they  are  on  different  points? 

4.  You  may  have  made  some  errors  in  the  letters  called  for 
in  2  and  3.     Rewrite  them  so  as  to  hand  in  perfect  letters  this 
time.     Reread    what    was    said    about    the    margin.     Before 
writing  the  heading,  read  the  instructions,  and  continue  doing 
the  same  for  each  part  of  the  letters.     Make  no  errors. 

5.  Write  a   complaint   to  your  alderman   that  the   city 
sidewalk  builders  have  cut  down  your  tennis  backstop,  which 
was  a  few  inches  too  far  out.     Tell  him  that  the  damage  is 
seventy-five  dollars  and  that  your  club   could   easily  have 
moved  the  stop  for  ten  dollars  if  the  members  had  known  of 
the  conditions. 


*May  we  use  14th? 


286  VOCATIONAL  ENOL I  s  1 1 

EXERCISE  193 

1.  A  passing  automobile  lost  an  extra  tire  in  front  of  your 
home.    The  number  of  the  machine  was  K318,  or  perhaps 
K  818.    Write  to  the  proper  authorities,  giving  the  date  and, 
since  you  are  not  quite  sure  of  the  number,  such  description 
of  the  machine  as  you  can.     Describe  the  tire  (use  the  nomen- 
clature of  the  market)   and   add  anything  else  you   think 
necessary. 

2.  On  leaving  a  church  social  last  Tuesday  evening  (give 
date),  you  found  your  umbrella  replaced  by  another  bearing 
the  name  of  Franklin  H.  Siinnis  on  the  handle.    Write  to  him. 

3.  Write  to  the  University  of  Chicago  for  two  seats  for  the 
Illinois-Chicago  football  game.    Don't  forget  any  necessary 
detail. 

4.  You  are  a  foreigner  and  have  lived  in  America  six  years. 
You  are  called  for  examination  for  your  second  naturalization 
papers   (final),  August  16.    Write  to  the  proper  authorities 
explaining  that  your  son  becomes  of  age  August  14,  and  you 
would  like  your  examination  before  August  14.     (See  any 
encyclopedia  under  Naturalization,  Laws  of  U.  8.) 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  XX 

1 .  What  is  the  correct  margin  for  an  8H  x  11  business  letter? 

2.  What  are  the  reasons  against  "end  punctuation"? 

3.  Why  is  6/12/18  a  poor  indication  of  date? 

4.  Is  Dr.  A.  M.  Brywn,  M.  D.  a  correct  use  of  titles? 

5.  Is  Dear  Jones  a  good  salutation? 

6.  What  kind  of  signature  is  most  easily  forged? 

7.  What  are  the  correct  ways  for  a  married  woman  to  sign  herself? 


CHAPTER  XXI 


MISTAKES  IN  THE  LANGUAGE  OF  LETTERS 

204.  The  Need  of  Variety  in  Expression.     Something  has 
been  said  in  Chapter  XIX  of  the  objections  to  trite  phrases  in 
letters.     There  remains,  then,  the  task  of  finding  out  what  is 
considered  trite  and  of  substituting  .other  forms.     In  general, 
no  one  substitute  can  be  found  for  any  hackneyed  phrase,  for 
the  substitute  itself  would  then  soon  become  trite.     Freshness 
of  expression  calls  for  variety,  and  variety  comes  from  careful 
consideration  of  the  individual  case.     One  very  vital  objection 
to  the  old  forms  of  correspondence  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
writer  can  let  "y°ur  esteemed  favor  came  duly  to  hand"  slip  in 
automatically,  as  the  pedestrian  avoids  a  mud  puddle,  without 
any  process  of  thought.     Thoughtless  letters  are  not  good  busi- 
ness letters. 

205.  A  List  of  Trite  Words  and  Phrases.     Careful  attention 
to  the  following  is   desirable  if  one  would  avoid   worn-out 
expressions. 

advise — used  too  frequently  for  inform  or  tell. 

(Avoid)  (Write) 

Please  advise  us  as  to  outcome.  Please  let  us  know  the  result. 

at  handy  to  hand — useless. 

(Avoid)  (Write) 

Your  letter  of  November  24  at  I  like  what  you  said  in  your 

hand.  letter  of  November  24;  or,  The 

[This  entire  sentence  (except  the  chairs    you    ordered     November 

date)  is  usually  unnecessary,  since          24  were  shipped  today .... 

the  fact  that  you  are  replying  to  a 

letter  is  pretty  good  evidence  that 

you  received  it.     Weave  the  date 

into  the  first  sentence,  and  make 

that  sentence  work.] 

287 


288  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

beg — very  bad. 

(Avoid)  (Write) 

\\  •  beg  to  say ....  We  wish  to  say .... 

[This  form  is  a  relic  of  servile  [Even  this  form  may  often  be 

1<  tt<  T  writing.)  made  unnecessary  by  saying  i 

than  announcing  that  you  want 
to  say.] 

\\  I- beg  to  remain.     .     .     . 
[The  whole  clause  can  be  omit- 
ted, and  if  its  useless  concomitant, 
Hoping  that  we  may  have  a  continu- 
.  disappears,  it  will  take 
with  it,  We  beg  to  remain.] 

contents  care/idly  noted — senseless — as  if  you  are  not  in  the 
habit  of  noting  "contents/'  and  this  is  an  exception.  Avoid 
the  entire  phrase. 

duly — unnecessary. 

(Avoid)  (Write) 

Your  letter  duly  at  hand.  Your  letter  arrived  today  (or 

omit  the  expression  altogether). 

esteemed — meant  to  be  complimentary,  but  of  no  value  since  it 
is  offered  to  everybody. 

(Avoid) 

We  have  your  esteemed  favor. 
[Omit   the   word.    The  entire  sentence  may  go  without  loss.] 

favor — unless  you  really  mean  favor,  say  letter, 
favor  its — use  some  less  hackneyed  form. 

(Avoid)  (Write) 

Will  you  favor  us  with  a  copy?  I  shall  appreciate  a  copy. 

hand  you — literally  untrue. 

(Avoid)  (Write)) 

We  hand  you  our  spring  catalog.  We  are  mailing  you  our  spring 

catalog. 


MISTAKES  IN  THE  LANGUAGE  OF  LETTERS        289 

herewith — overworked. 

(Avoid) 

Enclosed  herewith  you  will  find. 
[Omit  the  word.] 

hoping,  trusting,  believing,  etc.,  introducing  the  last  sentence 
of  a  letter — trite  and  ineffective. 

(Avoid)  (Write) 

Hoping  to  hear  from  you  soon,  I  I  should  like  to  know  about  this 

am.    ...  by  the  middle  of  the  month. 

[Or  omit  the  whole  sentence.] 

I  am,  Yours  truly — relic  of  other  days.  /  have  the  honor,  sir, 
of  being,  and  I  am,  sir,  your  obedient  servant,  and  Believe  me, 
Yours  faithfully,  have  already  gone  to  the  scrap  heap,  and 
little  will  be  lost  if  I  am  as  a  prefix  to  Yours  truly  joins  them. 
Yours  truly  is  sufficient  after  your  last  regular  sentence. 

inst.,  ult.,  prox. — better  avoided,  since  they  throw  the  burden 
of  difficult  reading  on  the  receiver. 

(Avoid)  (Write) 

In  your  letter  of  the  16th  inst.  In  your  letter  of  January  16.  ... 

kind — do  not  use. 

(Avoid) 

Your  kind  letter .... 

[As  if  writing  to  you  were  a  mat- 
ter of  charity.  If  your  correspond- 
ent has  really  done  you  a  favor,  he 
deserves  at  least  a  sentence  of  ap- 
preciation.] 

kindly — overworked. 
oblige — overworked. 

(Avoid)  (Write) 

Will  you  kindly  oblige  us  ....  Will  you   do   us   a   favor;   or, 

Will  you  please .     .     .    . 


JIM)  VOCATIONAL  ENGLI  s  1 1 

our  Mr.  Brown — undignified.  Say  Mr.  Brown,  or  Mr.  Brown, 
our  representative. 

recent  date — often  useless.  In  general,  the  date  is  important 
enough  for  a  more  exact  statement,  or  it  is  not  important 
at  all. 

(Avoid)  (Write) 

Your  letter  of  recent  date  .  .  .  .  Your  letter  of  January  16;  or, 

Your  letter  of  last  week  .... 

said — an  imitation  of  the  legal  form. 

(Avoid)  (Write) 

....  said  letter  came  too  late.  ....  this  letter  came  too  late. 

same — a  dangerous  word.  "Avoid  same  as  you  would  the 
plague/'  is  the  instruction  of  the  Crane  Company,  of  Chicago, 
to  its  correspondence  managers.  "Dear  Madam:"  wrote  a 
Chicago  veterinarian,  "Your  dog's  ears  are  now  well  and  the 
same  can  be  taken  home  at  any  time."  Sometimes  any 
reference  is  unnecessary. 

(Avoid)  (Write) 

....  your  letter  of  October  20,  .  .  your  letter  of  October  20, 

and  in  reply  to  same  we  want.  .  .  .          and  in  reply  we  want  .... 

Generally,  repeating  the  antecedent  of  same  gives  better  results. 

(Avoid)  (Write) 

We  have  your  letter  about  the  We  have  your  letter  about  the 

bicycle  shipped  by  us  last  week ;  bicycle  we  shipped  you  last  week ; 
you  will  find  the  same  to  be  fully  you  will  find  it  fully  equal  to  .... 
equal  to  ....  Or,  You  will  find  the  bicycle  we 

shipped  you  last  week  fully  equal 
to  ....  4 

state — overworked.    Use  say  or  some  other  synonym. 

under  separate  cover — overworked.  Say  You  will  receive,  or 
We  have  sent  by  parcel  post.  While  these  forms  are  longer, 
there  has  been  such  a  revolution  against  triteness  that  in 
this  case  the  writer  had  better  avoid  the  shorter  form. 


MISTAKES  IN  THE  LANGUAGE  OF  LETTERS        291 

valued — open  to  the  same  criticism  as  esteemed. 

we — sometimes  used  successively  with  /  in  a  puzzling  way. 
We  is  used  far  too  frequently,  probably  under  the  impression 
that  I  is  egotistic. 

wish  to  inform — a  pompous  way  of  saying  want  to  say.  We 
should  like  to  have  you  know,  or  some  similar  form,  is  probably 
better  than  either. 

would  say — avoid  the  expression. 
writer — used  too  frequently  to  avoid  I. 
yours1 — not  in  good  use  for  your  letter. 

Of  course  it  is  not  possible  to  avoid  all  trite  expressions. 
Yours  truly  is  a  survival  of  days  of  lords  and  kings.  But  in 
spite  of  its  triteness  and  of  the  fact  that  its  original  meaning  is 
now  altogether  gone,  it  is  retained  along  with  Dear  Sir  in  all 
business  letters,  because  our  customs  demand  some  form  of 
introduction  and  leave-taking.  In  conversation  the  corre- 
sponding forms  are  "Good  morning/'  said  regardless  of  the 
weather,  and  "Goodbye/'  uttered  without  a  thought  of  its 
original  meaning,  God  be  with  you.  Just  as  goodbye  serves  the 
spoken  language  well,  so  Yours  truly  finds  a  useful  place  in 
letters. 

206.  Too  Great  Familiarity.  In  a  reaction  against  the 
deadening  effect  of  triteness,  many  writers  go  to  the  other 
extreme — friendliness  so  ardent  as  to  amount  to  familiarity. 
Similarly,  some  writers,  in  an  effort  to  be  catchy  and  interest- 
ing, achieve  only  vulgarity.  They  fail  to  realize  that  most 
men  resent  the  "touch  on  the  shoulder."  Most  of  us  do  not 
like  a  stranger  to  address  us  by  our  first  names,  and  nearly 
all  men  resent  Dear  Brown  from  any  one  but  a  friend.  The 
quality  of  reserve  increases  with  education;  i.  e.,  a  professional 

1  Benjamin  Franklin,  in  writing  to  a  former  English  friend  who  had  sided  against  the 
Colonies  in  the  Revolution,  once  used  Yours  in  a  quite  different  sense,  closing  his  letter 
thus: 

"You  and  I  were  long  friends;  you  are  now  my  enemy,  and  I  am 

Yours, 

B.  Franklin" 


•J!>2  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

man  is  much  more  easily  offended  by  undue  familiarity  than 
a  working  man. 

One  does  not  read  many  letters,  especially  of  the  form  or 
the  "follow-up"  kind,  without  meeting  this  objectionable  type. 
Several  examples  of  an  objectionable  sort  follow. 

Dear  Brown: 

Hello,  old  top,  you  look  cold.  You  need  a  pair  of  wool  mittens 
and  a  good  overcoat.  Get  them  at ,  etc. 

Dear  Brown: 

When  you  opened  up  this  morning  did  you  see  old  shirt  sleeves 
already  at  work  across  the  street?  And  wasn't  he  going  it?  Now 
you'll  have  to  beat  him  to  it.  Make  up  your  mind  that  the  next  time 
old  shirt  sleeves  looks  in  at  your  window,  he'll  turn  green. 

Dear  Brown: 

When  you  kick  about  a  cold  dinner,  does  your  wife  ever  make  it 
warm  for  you? 

The  safe  road  is,  of  course,  on  middle  ground.  You  can 
write  a  dignified  letter  without  its  sounding  miles  away  and 
you  can  write  an  interesting  letter  without  trespassing  on 
another's  dignity. 

207.  Undue  Brevity.  With  the  great  rush  of  business 
correspondence,  incident  to  the  invention  of  the  typewriter  and 
to  the  practical  use  of  stenography,  came  a  theory  that  business 
letters  should  be  as  brief  as  possible.  Brevity  is,  of  course,  a 
good  quality,  but  it  must  not  be  bought  at  the  price  of  courtesy. 
No  possible  gain  in  time  can  offset  the  discourtesy  of  the  letter 
in  the  left  column  below: 

(A  poor  letter)  (A  better  form) 

Dear  Sir:  Dear  Sir: 

Can't   fill   order.    Please   give  We  must  withhold  your  ship- 

size.    Will   hold   shipment   until          ment  for  a  few  days  because  you 
you  write  us.  forgot  to  give  us  the  size  of  the 

Yours  truly,  shoes.    We   thank   you   for   the 

order,  and  will  ship  the  shoes  just 
as  soon  as  you  send  us  exact 
directions. 

Yours  truly, 


MISTAKES  IN  THE  LANGUAGE  OF  LETTERS        293 

Avoid  the  headless  sentence;  i.  e.,  the  sentence  without  a 
subject,  usually  omitted  on  the  theory  that  the  reader  knows 
what  it  is. 

(Avoid)  '   (Write) 

Received  yours  of  June  16.  We    received    your    letter    of 

June  16. 

Do  not  omit  articles  or  other  small  words. 

(Avoid)  .   (Write) 

Will  ship  shoes  soon  as  order  We  will  ship  the  shoes  as  soon 

reaches  us.  as  the  order  reaches  us. 

Little  is  to  be  gained  by  using  abbreviations;  and  the 
shortening  of  ordinary  words  gives  the  impression  of  impolite 
haste — as  if  the  writer  did  not  consider  you  worth  the  time. 

(Avoid)  (Write) 

Y'rs  rec'd  in  re  price  cotton.  We  received  your  letter  regard- 

ing the  price  of  cotton. 

Seek  to  save  by  compactness  of  sentence  structure  and  by 
good  sense,  rather  than  by  the  omission  of  phrase,  word,  or 
syllable. 

208.  A  Too  Heavy  Style.     We  sometimes  find  among  the 
half  educated  a  feeling  that  large  words  indicate  a  high  degree 
of  intelligence  and  education.     A  little  of  this  feeling  is  some- 
times found  among  letter  writers.     Business  letters  should  be 
expressed  in  the  simplest  language  in  keeping  with  efficiency. 

(A  poor  letter)  (A  better  form) 

Dear  Sir :  Dear  Sir : 

In  substantiation  of  my  asser-  In  proof  of  my  statement  in  a 

tion  that  the  illumination  in  our  letter  to  you  on  October  16  that 

municipal  library  is  insufficient,  as  the  lighting  in  the  city  library  is 

detailed  to  you  in  my  communica-  poor,  I  .... 
ion  of  the  16th  ultimo,  I  .... 

209.  A   Too   Indirect   Style.     Modern   efficiency   demands 
work  from  every  word  in  a  letter.     A  little  care  in  shortening 


•JIM 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


expressions  will  often  save  a  good  deal  of  time  without  lessening 
their  force. 


(Too  many  words) 
Dear  Sir: 

In  reference  to  the  books  you 
ordered  in  your  letter  of  Aug.  14, 
we  will  say  that  we  are  shipping  all 
but  the  Gulliver's  Travels. 
(Twenty-four  words.) 

Dear 

We  are  in  receipt  of  your  letter 
of  June  10,  and  in  reply  will  say 
that  our  supply  of  pearl  wire 
screen  which  you  ordered,  June  1, 
is  temporarily  exhausted,  and  we 
regret  very  much  that  we  have  had 
to  put  you  to  this  inconvenience. 
We  can  now  promise  shipment  by 
the  end  of  the  week. 
(Fifty-four  words.) 

Dear  Sir: 

Replying  to  your  letter  of  June 
10,  we  wish  to  say  that  we  do  not 
any  longer  stock  the  goods  you 
ordered. 

(Twenty-one  words.) 


(Brief er  forms) 
Dear  Sir: 

\Vc  are  shipping  the  books  of 
your  Aug.  14  order,  except  the 
Gulliver's  Travels. 

(Thirteen  words.) 

Dear  Sir: 

We  regret  that  we  had  to  delay 
filling  your  order  of  June  1,  for 
pearl  wire  screen.  Our  stock  is 
temporarily  exhausted,  but  we  can 
(ill  your  order  by  the  end  of  the 
week. 

(Thirty-three  words.) 


Dear  Sir: 

\\  e  regret  that  we  no  longer 
stock  the  goods  you  ordered  June 
10. 

(Twelve  words.) 


Letters  are  weakened,  too,  by  the  use  of  an  indirect  and 
distant  passive  construction  where  the  direct  active  would  be 
more  forceful. 


(Avoid) 

(1)  Prints  are  being  made. 

(2)  A  memorandum  is  being  sent 

you. 


(Write) 

(1)  We  are  having  prints  made. 

(2)  We  are  sending  you  a  mem- 

orandum. 


210.  "We,"  "the  Writer,"  and  "I."  The  feeling,  due  often 
to  wrong  teaching,  that  a  writer  should  avoid  /  because  it 
seems  too  egotistic,  has  caused  considerable  awkwardness  in 
wording.  There  is  no  objection  to  /  in  a  letter — that  is,  it 
is  not  more  objectionable  in  a  letter  than  it  is  in  conversation. 


MISTAKES  IN  THE  LANGUAGE  OF  LETTERS        295 

No  one  wants  to  talk  long  to  anybody  who  shows  by  his  con- 
versation that  he  thinks  /  the  most  important  person  in  the 
world.  Yet  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  speak  of  ourselves,  and 
the  discreet  use  of  /  in  business  letters  contributes  much  to 
their  naturalness  and  force.  The  use  of  the  writer  to  avoid  I 
almost  always  results  in  awkwardness. 

(Distant  and  unnatural)  i        (Better) 

The  writer  spent  a  few  days  last  I  spent  a  few  days  last  week 

week  on  his  farm  in  Texas.  on  my  Texas  farm. 

We  is,  of  course,  proper  in  a  letter  coming  from  a  firm  or  a 
company  a^d  not  from  some  individual  representing  the  com- 
pany; but  we  should  not  be  used  merely  as  a  means  of  avoiding  7. 

It  is  unwise  to  put  /  or  we  before  you.  For  instance,  "You 
will  be  far  more  comfortable  in  our  light  weight  suits"  is 
stronger  than  "We  can  make  you  more  comfortable  if  you  will 
buy  one  of  our  light  weight  suits."  It  is  neither  good  manners 
nor  good  business  to  think  of  yourself  first.  Translate  every 
transaction  into  the  experience  of  the  reader,  if  possible.  Keep 
the  receiver's  happiness  or  gain  always  before  him. 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  XXI 

1.  What  is  a  hackneyed  expression? 

2.  Why  is  it  impossible  to  give  a  definite  substitute  for  such  an  ex- 
pression? 

3.  Can  you  give  two  reasons  for  avoiding  the  use  of  same? 

4.  Should  the  writer  avoid  the  use  of  If     Explain. 

5.  Letters  which  are  meant  to  be  "snappy"  sometimes  take  on  an 
objectionable  quality.     What  is  it? 

6.  Why  is  undue  brevity  bad? 

7.  Is  it  wise  to  use  the  writer  to  avoid  If     Discuss. 


CHAPTER  XXII 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS 

211.  Two  Lincoln  Letters.  Two  letters  of  Abraham  Lincoln 
are  quoted  here  because,  in  their  simple  directness  and  unusual 
clearness,  and  in  their  broad  human  sympathy,  they  furnish 
excellent  models  for  business  correspondence.  Note  in  the 
following  letter,  first  the  evidences  of  clear  thinking,  and  second 
the  orderly  directness  in  the  manner  of  expressing  the  thought. 

Executive  Mansion,  Washington 

February  3,  1862 
Major-General  McClellan: 
My  dear  Sir: 

You  and  I  have  distinct  and  different  plans  for  a  move- 
ment of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac — yours  to  be  down  the  Chesapeake, 
up  the  Rappahannock  to  Urbana,  and  across  land  to  the  terminus 
of  the  railroad  on  York  River;  mine  to  move  directly  to  a  point  on  the 
railroad  southwest  of  Manassas. 

If  you  will  give  me  satisfactory  answers  to  the  following  questions, 
I  shall  gladly  yield  my  plan  to  yours. 

First.    Does  not  your  plan  involve  a  greatly  larger  expenditure  of 
time  and  money  than  mine? 

Second.    Wherein  is  a  victory  more  certain  by  your  plan  than 
mine? 

Third .    Wherein  is  a  victory  more  valuable  by  your  plan  than  mine? 

Fourth.     In  fact,  would  it  not  be  less  valuable  in  this,  that  it  would 

break  no  great  line  of  the  enemy's  communications,  while  mine  would? 

Fifth.    In  case  of  a  disaster,  would  not  retreat  be  more  difficult  by 

your  plan  than  by  mine?1 

Yours  truly, 

Abraham  Lincoln 

The  second  letter  is  given  here  to  show  the  desirability  of 
courteous  explanation  and  a  sympathetic  attitude.  As  Pres- 
ident and  Commander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  the  United 


'Note  that  McClellan 's  plan  failed  disastrously,  while  that  of  Lincoln  was  carried 
out  later  by  General  Grant  and  won  the  war. 

296 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  297 

States,  Lincoln  might  simply  have  ordered  without  comment 
what  he  went  to  some  length  to  request.  Thus  the  shortest 
letter  is  not  always  best.  Even  in  giving  orders  it  is  often  well 
to  present  reasons,  provided,  of  course,  they  are  such  as  con- 
cern the  receiver. 

Executive  Mansion,  Washington 

March  1,  1864 
Hon.  Secretary  of  War: 
My  dear  Sir: 

A  poor  widow  by  the  name  of  Baird  has  a  son  in  the  army, 
that  for  some  offense  has  been  sentenced  to  serve  a  long  time  without 
pay,  or  at  most  with  very  little  pay.  I  do  not  like  this  punishment 
of  withholding  pay.  It  falls  so  very  hard  on  poor  families.  After 
he  had  been  serving  this  way  for  several  months,  at  the  tearful  appeal 
of  the  poor  mother,  I  made  a  direction  that  he  be  allowed  to  enlist 
for  a  new  term,  on  the  same  conditions  as  the  others.  She  now  comes 
and  says  she  cannot  get  it  acted  upon.  Please  do  it. 

Yours  truly, 
A.  Lincoln 

Throughout  your  composition  of  various  types  of  letters 
which  are  to  follow,  try  to  preserve  the  simple  thoroughness 
of  the  Lincoln  letters,  along  with  their  evident  good  will. 

212.  The  Letter  of  Application.  "Getting  a  job/'  especially 
the  first  one,  is  a  vital  'experience  in  the  life  of  a  boy  or  a  girl. 
Yet  it  is  said  that  only  a  small  percentage  of  letters  received 
in  reply  to  an  advertisement  are  fully  read.  This  can  be  easily 
believed.  An  advertiser  reports  the  following  forms  of  replies 
to  a  "want  ad": 

Twelve  letters  on  paper  torn  from  a  permanent  tablet — chiefly  from 
shorthand  dictation  pads. 

Seventeen  letters  on  otherwise  objectionable  stationery. 

One  letter  on  the  margin  of  a  newspaper. 

One  telegram. 

Twenty-four  unsatisfactory.  These  were  cast  aside  because  of  unin- 
viting appearance — poor  writing,  lack  of  neatness,  bad  spelling,  glaringly 
bad  English,  etc. 

Nineteen  possible.  Of  these  nineteen,  each  of  which  was  carefully 
read,  six  were  chosen  and  the  writers  were  interviewed. 


_>!)8  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

In  spite  of  this  report,  however,  the  writer  of  an  applica- 
tion, if  he  is  careful,  can  make  it  certain  that  his  letter  will  be 
read.  He  should: 

1.  Use  excellent   paper   and   envelope.    The   paper   and 
envelope  should  match.    The  envelope  might  well  be  of  the 
stamped  kind  sold  in  the  post  office.    It  should  not  be  odd  in 
shap£  or  color. 

2.  The  letter  should  be  written  on  one  side  of  the  paper 
only.    It  should  conform  in  general  to  the  instructions  given 
in  Chapter  XX  as  to  margins,  etc.     If  possible  it  should  be 
typewritten. 

These  things  will  insure  notice.  We  shall  now  consider 
the  subject  matter  of  the  letter. 

213.  The  Content.  The  best  asset  any  person  can  have, 
except  of  course  character,  is  the  power  to  organize.  You 
must  be  able  to  get  the  first  thing  first  and  other  things  in  due 
order.  Demonstrate  your  ability  by  putting  all  about  your 
education  in  one  place — usually  a  separate  paragraph — and 
all  about  your  r\p<  rimce  in  another  place.  Let  us  see  in 
what  order  the  topics  should  come. 

Naturally  a  statement  of  the  position  applied  for  comes 
first — perhaps  the  employer  is  seeking  help  in  a  dozen  different 
departments.  Next  he  wants  to  know  whether  you  are  a  boy 
or  a  girl,  how  old  you  are,  and  something  about  your  nation- 
ality and  your  physical  condition. 

These  points  are  in  a  sense  only  preliminary  to  the  three 
main  qualifications — experience,  education,  and  reference. 
Always  tell  of  your  experience  first;  if  you  have  had  none, 
do  not  seek  to  hide  the  fact.  The  employer  wants  to  know 
what  you  have  done,  for  if  some  one  has  tried  you,  you  have 
a  record. 

Education  is  next  in  importance.  Employers  are  steadily 
raising  their  educational  requirements  as  experience  demon- 
strates to  them  the  superiority  of  the  trained  mind.  At  this 
point  you  can  advantageously  bring  in  a  little  of  your  own 
personality — your  attitude,  for  instance,  toward  the  work  you 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  299 

hope  to  do.  If  your  experience  and  your  education  are 
satisfactory,  and  the  form  of  the  letter  is  pleasing,  the  em- 
ployer will,  at  this  point,  be  striving  to  get  a  mental  picture 
of  you.  He  will  be  open  to  impression.  Don't  miss  the 
opportunity  of  making  this  first  impression  favorable. 

Throughout  the  letter,  and  at  this  point  especially,  get 
away  from  any  set  form.  Write  your  own  letter  in  your  own 
mode  of  expression;  use  the  simplest  and  sincerest  language 
you  know. 

References  should  be  intended  for  use;  i.  e.,  little  is  gained 
by  referring  vaguely  to  a  half  dozen  people.  It  is  better 
to  name  one  or  two  persons  qualified  to  speak  of  you,  and 
if  telephone  communication  is  possible  it  is  well  to  give  the 
telephone  numbers.  The  employer  is  a  busy  man,  and  he 
is  almost  sure,  other  things  being  equal,  to  try  to  get  into 
touch  with  the  applicant  who  offers  the  easiest  line  of  inves- 
tigation. 

Honesty  is  always  the  best  policy.  No  man  can  deceive 
for  long,  and  few  men  have  profited  by  deceit.  Do  not  try 
to  hide  a  limited  experience  or  a  poor  education.  Offer  your- 
self frankly  as  you  are.  If  you  cannot  do  the  work,  you  should 
be  the  last  person  to  want  it;  if  you  can  do  the  work,  let  your 
quiet  confidence  show  through  your  letter. 

214.  One  Possible  Letter  of  Application.  The  following 
letter  is  not  a  form,  but  an  illustration.  *It  is,  therefore,  not 
to  be  imitated  except  in  a  general  way.  The  numbers  in 
parentheses  are  not  part  of  the  letter,  but  references  to  Exercise 
194. 

Chicago 

July  28,  1916 
To  (1)X  5 

Chicago  Tribune 
Dear  Sir: (2) 

I  want  a  position  as  a  stenographer,  and  I  submit  the  following  facts 
for  your  consideration : 

The  person: (3)  I  am  a  girl,  eighteen  years  old  and  in  excellent 
health.  My  parents  are  of  Irish  descent,  but  the  family  has  lived  in 
America  for  several  generations. 


300  \<  M  AT10NAL  ENGLISH 

Experience:  I  was  employed  by  H.  A.  Mueller  A  Co.,  importers  of 
German  optical  goods,  until  the  war  forced  them  practically  to  suspend 
business.  I  have  never  worked  for  any  other  firm. (4)  I  was  with  Mm-lW 
&  Co.  seventeen  months,  at  first  filing  letters  and  writing  an  occasional 
letter.  When  I  left  I  was  handling  order  detail. 

Education:  I  attended  the  Roeeville,  Illinois,  Township  High  School 
for  a  little  more  than  two  yean,  but  had  to  give  up  my  schooling  because 
of  the  death  of  my  father.  (5)  I  attended  the  Central  Business  College 
at  Monmouth,  Illinois,  for  six  months,  accomplishing  a  speed  of  seventy 
words  on  the  typewriter  and  115  at  dictation. 

Ability:  I  have  confidence  in  myself — I  have  to  have  it. (6)  I  never 
did  anything  in  your  line,  but  I  know  I  can  learn.  The  first  week  at 
Mueller's  I  was  lost  in  a  maze  of  technical  terms,  but  I  learned  the  work 
and  was  given  charge  of  letters  in  the  most  technical  department. 

References:    Mr.  H.  M.  Queens,  Principal  of  the  Central  Business 
College,  Monmouth,  Illinois     Mr.  H.  A.  Mueller,  220  8.  Wabash  Av<  nu< 
Telephone  Harrison  (7)  4834  (8  a.  m.  to  1  p.  m.);  residence,  Englewood 
7184. 

Can  you  give  me  an  interview  at  a  time  convenient  to  you?  I  can 
I  «  reached  through  Wentworth  784. 

Yours  truly, 

Mary  A.  Healy 

0241  Eggleston  Avenue 

EXERCISE   194 

Consider  the  following  notes  and  questions  on  the  foregoing 
letter  of  application:. 

(1)  It  is  better  to  use  the  word  to  here  to  avoid  too  great  abruptness. 

(2)  This  is  allowable — in  fact  preferable.    The  habit  of  beginning 
without  a  salutation  is  unusual. 

(3)  It  is  somewhat  unusual  to  write  the  paragraph  headings  and  these 
headings  may  be  omitted.  This  is  a  business  letter,  however,  and  the 
headings  show  clearly  the  organization.  The  heading,  indeed,  is  coming 
into  increasingly  frequent  use  in  business  letters  of  all  sorts. 

(4)  Is  frankness  a  good  quality? 

(5)  Is  reference  to  the  death  of  her  father  proper  in  a  business  letter? 

(6)  What  does  she  mean? 

(7)  What  is  the  intention  of  Miss  Healy  regarding  this  reference? 

Is  the  letter  sincere?  Does  Miss  Healy  very  much  need  work?  How 
do  you  know?  Does  she  ask  for  charity? 

If  you  were  the  employer,  would  you  ask  Miss  Healy  to  see  you? 
Miss  Healy  has  not  mentioned  salary.     Should  she  have  done  so? 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  301 

215.  Application  in  Person.  The  following  material  is 
from  a  newspaper  interview: 

Things  every  boy  or  girl  looking  for  a  job  in  a  large  department  store 
should  know  were  told  yesterday  by  Charles  P.  Avery,  office  employment 
manager  of  Marshall  Field  &  Co.,  in  a  talk  to  the  public  schools  depart- 
ment of  the  National  Commercial  Teachers'  Federation  and  Allied  Associa- 
tions, holding  its  twenty-first  annual  convention  in  the  Hotel  Sherman. 

"Probably  75  per  cent  of  the  applications  made  by  commercial  grad- 
uates are  lacking  in  some  essential,"  said  Mr.  Avery. 

"Teacfc  your  students  that  personal  appearance  is  the  first  considera- 
tion. If  a  boy  comes  to  us  with  his  shoes  unblacked  and  his  hair  uncombed, 
I  am  quite  likely  to  conclude  that  he  belongs  in  a  factory  rather  than  in 
the  office  department  of  a  store.  If  a  boy  or  girl  doesn't  make  a  good 
appearance,  he  or  she  won't  even  get  an  interview. 

"Then  comes  the  manner  of  approach.  If  they  will  come  to  me  just 
as  they  would  come  to  their  teacher  at  school  or  their  parents,  I  shall  be 
able  to  judge  their  qualifications.  If  a  boy  slouches  in,  holds  the  door  open, 
and  gives  the  impresssion  that  he  has  all  the  time  in  the  world  on  his 
hands,  I  am  likely  to  wonder  if  that  is  the  way  he  would  do  if  I  sent  him  on 
an  errand. 

"We  give  each  applicant  a  blank  application  and  tell  him  to  go  over 
to  the  desk  and  fill  it  out.  Some  boys  say,  Where?'  Teach  your  students 
to  think  quickly  and  listen  to  what  is  told  them.  The  employment 
manager  does  not  want  to  repeat  everything  he  says. 

"The  appearance  of  the  application,  the  spelling  and  the  writing,  all 
have  significance  for  us.  You  would  be  surprised  to  see  how  dirty  some  of 
the  applications  are  when  they  are  handed  back  to  us  in  about  five  minutes. 
Some  of  them  are  rolled  or  doubled  up,  with  the  marks  of  dirty  fingers  on 
them,  so  that  the  writing  is  almost  illegible.  I  picture  to  myself  that 
person  taking  a  note  to  a  section  manager  or  the  general  manager  and 
handing  it  in  looking  like  that. 

"We  find  a  tremendous  number  of  misspelled  words.  Many  of  the 
applicants  do  not  answer  all  the  questions. 

"We  are  always  looking  for  the  boys  and  girls  who  can  graduate 
quickly  into  more  important  work.  One  of  the  very  first  things  we  notice 
is  whether  they  have  'pep.'  We  want  promptness  and  responsibility. 

"But  the  boys  and  girls  who  want  work  are  not  coming  to  an  ogre 
when  they  approach  the  employment  manager.  They  are  coming  to  a 
man  or  a  woman  who  wants  to  hire  them.  They  can  sell  their  services  to 
advantage  if  they  have  the  material. 

"Also,  we  are  sincerely  anxious  to  see  them  get  into  the  right  groove. 
I  am  constantly  directing  boys  and  girls  to  other  places  where  I  believe 
they  will  make  a  better  success  than  they  could  with  us." 


302  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE   105 

1.  List  the  qualities  Mr.  Avery  (p.  301)  wants  to  fin<l  in 
a  candidate  for  employment. 

2.  In  what  order  should  personal  qualifications  be  mentioned 
in  a  letter  of  application? 

3.  If  you  were  an  employer,  what  qi^alities  would  you  expect 
to  find  in  any  man  who  could  write  as  good  a  business  lett< 
the  Lincoln-McClellan  letter  on  page  296? 

EXERCISE   106  a 

Write  a  composition  on: 

How  I  shall  try  for  my  first  job. 

EXERCISE  107 

Make  written  application  for  one  of  the  following  positions. 
Imagine  yourself  to  have  whatever  qualifications  you  desire. 
Be  sincere,  fair,  interesting,  and  direct. 

WASTED-HELP. 

Stores  and  Offices. 

STENOGRAPHER— YOUNG    MAN,  PREFER- 
ably  high  school  graduate,  for  position  in  engineer- 


ing department  of  large  manufacturing  cc 
salary  $14;  a  splendid  opportunity;  give  age.  educa- 
tion, and  experience  in  detail.     Address  M  D  125, 
Tribune. ^___ 

STENOGRAPHER  — BRIGHT.  ENERGETIC 
person  for  stenographic  and  general  clerical  work 
in  lumber  office;  answer  in  own  handwriting,  (dying 
full  particulars  as  to  experience,  age.  refs.,  nation- 

ality.  etc.     Address  M  L19*.  Tribune 

STENOGRAPHER— EXPERIENCED  YOUNG 
woman  or  man  of  good  appearance,  about  20  years 
old;   must  have  fair  knowledge  of  bookke«  ; 
good  opportunity  for  advancement.    Address  M  O 

1 16,  Tribune. 

STENOGRAPHER  —  MUST  BE  KXPERI- 
enced  and  have  some  executive  ability;  capable 
of  assuming  charge  dictaphone  dent,  large  down- 

town  office.  .  Address  M  D  128.  Tnbune. 

STOVE  CORRESPONDENT— MAN,  FAMIL- 
iar  with  construction  and  operation  of  coal,  wood, 
and  oil  stoves;  must  be  able  to  adjust  complaints 
by  letter;  write  or  call  employment  department. 
Open  all  day.  BROWV.  STEPHENS  and  MOY. 

EXERCISE   198 

Let  each  student  apply  personally  to  the  teacher  (in  the  role 
of  employer)  for  some  position  he  feels  qualified  to  fill.  For 
instance,  he  may  feel  himself  qualified  to  act  as  office  boy, 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  303 

grocery  clerk,  telephone  operator,   office  clerk,  mail  carrier, 
engineer's  helper,  stenographer,  newsboy,  etc. 
The  student  should : 

1.  Answer  all  questions  directly  and  truthfully. 

2.  Seek  to  appear  entirely  at  ease. 

3.  Take  time  to  speak  slowly  and  distinctly,  and  avoid  grammatical 
and  other  errors. 

The  student  should  not: 

1.  Allow  his  attention  to  be  drawn  away  from  the  employer. 

2.  Sit  down  until  invited  to  do  so. 

3.  Fumble  his  hat  or  sit  or  stand  awkwardly. 

EXERCISE  199 

Report  to  the  class  any  experiences,  pleasant  or  unpleasant, 
which  you  may  have  had  in  applying  for  summer  work.  Try 
to  have  the  class  profit  by  what  you  learned. 

216.  The  Letter  of  Recommendation.     Perhaps  the  most 
common  of  the  personal  business  letters  is  the  letter  of  recom- 
mendation.   .Employers    almost    always    demand    letters    of 
reference.     Of  course,  these  letters  are  usually  beyond  the  con- 
trol of  the  boy  or  girl  who  asks  them  of  a  previous  employer, 
but  it  is  not  inconceivable  that  the  two  may  talk  over  what  it 
is  best  to  say.     Certainly  the  applicant  should  know  what 
constitutes  a  good  letter  of  recommendation. 

There  are  two  general  forms  of  letters  of  recommendation: 
open  letters,  i.  e.,  those  addressed  To  whom  it  may  concern;  and 
the  direct  letter  sent  through  ordinary  channels,  the  content 
of  which  is  generally  unknown  to  the  applicant. 

217.  The  Open  Letter.     This  is  by  far  the  less  effective, 
chiefly  because  there  has  arisen  the  unfortunate  custom  of 
giving  discharged  employees  such  letters.     To  be  effective,  the 
open  letter  must  be  worded  very  carefully.     It  is  generally 
inadvisable  to  try  to  name  all  the  good  points  that  an  applicant 
should  have.     In  general,  it  is  better  to  name  only  the  major 
qualities,  which  include  honesty,  industry,  steadiness,  etc. 


304  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Of  course,  the  man  who  reads  a  recommendation  will  ask 
at  once,  "Why  did  he  leave  his  former  work?"  Realizing  this, 
the  writer  of  a  recommendation  should  make  this  point  very 
clear  even  if  the  matter  is  somewhat  disagreeable.  An  illus- 
tration of  the  open  letter  follows;  it  is  not  a  form  or  model,  and 
should  not  be  copied  closely. 

To  whom  it  may  rnnrrrn: 

Fred  R.  Nelson  is  leaving  Gray  &  Haynea  after  a  period  of  einhti  «-i- 
months,  because  he  does  not  want  to  continue  in  the  coal  and  ice  business. 
He  is  a  reliable  boy,  honest  and  alert.  We  especially  commend  him  for 
his  courtesy  to  our  trade.  Mr.  Haynes  and  I  recommend  him  and  stand 
ready  to  answer  any  letters  of  inquiry  about  him. 

Howard'E.  Gray 

Even  if  a  boy  has  had  trouble  with  his  employers,  he  has 
a  right  to  ask  them  to  give  their  side  of  the  case  frankly.  He 
can  then  state  his  view  of  the  matter  and  lay  both  versions 
openly  before  the  prospective  employer.  Mere  disagreement 
does  not  signify  unfitness. 

218.  The  Direct  Letter  of  Recommendation.  A  letter 
addressed  directly  has  of  course  much  more  force  than  the 
open  letter.  The  writer  feels  responsible  for  the  exact  truth, 
and  the  reader  is  more  inclined  to  accept  hU  < M  imate. 

It  is  best  to  speak  of  qualifications  which  will  he  suited  to  the 
new  conditions,  as  well  as  of  the  general  good  qualities  of  the 
applicant.  These  instructions,  of  course,  are  on  the  assumption 
that  a  positive  recommendation  is  to  be  made.  An  honest 
man  is  under  the  necessity  of  telling  the  truth,  and  he  should 
not  hesitate  to  tell  what  he  believes  to  be  the  facts  concerning 
any  person  who  refers  to  him.  The  following  is  an  example 
of  the  direct  letter: 

Reedy,  Tull  &  Co. 

6541  Race  St. 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Gentlemen : 

Miss  Edna  Miller  telephoned  me  last  night  asking  if  I  would  recom- 
mend her  to  you  as  a  stenographer.  I  told  her  that  I  should  be  happy  to 
serve  you  both.  I  have  known  Miss  Miller  for  more  than  three  years  while 
we  were  both  with  the  State  Life  Insurance  Company.  She  took  my 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  305 

dictation  most  of  the  time;  hence  I  know  about  her  work.  As  you  prob- 
ably know,  the  State  Life  has  been  bought  over  by  the  Farmers'  Life  of 
Davenport,  and  this  office  discontinued.  Miss  Miller  does  not  want  to 
go  with  us  to  Davenport. 

I  might  write  you  several  pages  about  her  good  qualities,  but  I  be- 
.lieve  I  can  save  your  time  and  mine  by  stating  that  I  feel  that  you  are 
fortunate  in  having  the  chance  to  hire  her. 

Yours  sincerely, 

McKee  L.  Dutton 
EXERCISE  200 

Write  a  general  letter  recommending  your  grocery  boy  or 
your  laundryman. 

EXERCISE  201 

At  the  request  of  your  father,  whose  secretary  you  are,  write 
a  letter  to  McKee  &  Co.,  Canton,  Mo.,  recommending  a  man 
whom  he  has  employed  for  a  year.  Suppose  McKee  &  Co. 
to  be  in  a  business  somewhat  similar  to  your  father's. 

219.  The  Letter  of  Introduction.  Few  people  stop  to  realize 
the  advantage  to  be  gained  by  taking  letters  of  introduction 
with  them  to  strange  communities.  If  you  are  going  into 
business  in  a  strange  town,  you  will  do  well  to  seek  a  friend  who 
can  introduce  you  to  the  president  of  the  business  men's  asso- 
ciation or  to  the  mayor  or  a  prominent  banker.  A  young 
woman  can  avoid  a  good  many  lonesome  hours  in  a  strange  place 
by  taking  with  her  a  letter  from  her  minister  to  the  pastor  of 
her  church  in  the  new  town,  who  will  then  introduce  her 
directly  to  the  best  young  people  he  knows.  The  form  of  a 
letter  of  introduction  is  generally  similar  to  the  following: 

Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Jan.  8,  1914 
My  dear  Mr.  Horton: 

I  have  a  very  good  friend  who  is  going  into  the  grocery  business  in 
Connellsville.  He  is  the  kind  of  man  you  need  in  your  Commercial 
Club,  and  I  want  him  to  have  the  pleasure  and  advantage  of  knowing  you. 
The  bearer  is  Mr.  Fred  Myers,  formerly  with  the  Sprague  Wholesale 
Grocery  Co.  of  this  city.  Any  courtesies  you  can  show  him  I  shall  appre- 
ciate personally. 

Yours  very  truly, 

To  Lucian  D.  Horton  Lyman  R.  Dupre 

Connellsville,  Pa. 


:{<><>  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  2O2 

In  a  Irttcr  introduce  the  son  of  a  neighbor  or  of  a  fri<  n<l 
to  a  business  man  in  a  distant  city.  Avoid,  if  possible,  the 
usual  form  of  wording. 

220.  Letters  Asking  Information.     Under  this  head  come 
requests  for  catalogs,  prices,  samples,  etc.    At  first  glance  it 
would  seem  unnecessary  to  spend  time  studying  the  proper 
method  of  asking  the  price  of  a  bicycle;  but  are  you  sure  you 
can  always  make  it  perfectly  plain  which  bicycle  you  are 
asking  about?    Besides,  business  men  ask  and  are  asked  many 
complicated   questions   touching   business   systems,    help   in 
operating  machinery,  legal  points,  etc. 

We  can  divide  letters  of  information  into  two  general 
classes:  those  falling  within  the  regular  routine  of  business, 
and  those  which  request  favors  outside  of  the  routine.  For 
instance,  you  naturally  expect  a  manufacturer  to  tell  you  what 
lubricating  oil  will  work  best  in  the  automobile  you  bought  of 
him,  but  you  feel  that  you  are  seeking  a  favor  when  you  ask 
1 1  i  i  n  to  tell  you  where  and  how  he  gets  his  best  steel.  Naturally, 
a  request  of  the  latter  type  requires  careful  planning. 

221.  The  Routine  Inquiry.    The  chief  desirable  quality  of 
routine  requests  is  definiteness.     Be  sure  to  make  your  specifi- 
cations exact,  and  to  put  them  in  a  convenient  form. 

(A  bad  letter  cf  inquiry)  (A  better  form) 

Dear  Sir:  Dear  Sir: 

\\  ill  you  please  tell  me  how  I  can  Will  you  please  tell  me  how  to 

take  the  back  off  the  camera  my          take  the  back  off  your  3  A- 146 
father  ordered  from  you  Christ-         model  camera? 
mas?    Thanking  you  in  advance,  Yours  truly, 

I  am,  Fred  Davis 

Yours  truly, 
Fred  Davis 

(Criticism)  (Commendation) 
Large  dealers  would  find  this  a  This    letter    is    definite.       No 
difficult  question  to  answer.     It  "Thanking  you  in  advance"  end- 
might  involve  going  over  the  books  ing  is  necessary, 
to  find  some  Davis  who  ordered  a 
camera  sometime  in  December. 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  307 

% 

222.  The  Request  for  a  Favor.     The  letter  asking  a  favor 

must  be  constructed  with  the  convenience  of  the  reader  in 
mind.  Letters  capable  of  standardization  are  usually  printed 
ready  for  the  reply  and  call  for  the  filling  in  of  only  a  few  words. 
A  stamped,  addressed  envelope  is  enclosed  with  the  request. 
An  example  of  a  standardized  letter  of  inquiry  is  given  below. 
Italic  parts  are  assumed  to  be  printed;  the  remainder  to  be 
inserted  by  typewriter. 

LEE,  DAVIS  &  BROCKWAY 

JEWELERS 

715  Masonic  Temple 

Chicago 

Mr.  J.  H.  Smith 

6721  Green  Street 

Chicago 
Dear  Sir: 

Mary  O'Brien  of  6142  Sangamon  Street  has  applied  to  us  for  the 
position  of  stenographer.  Will  you  please  tell  us  what  you  know  about 
her  qualifications?  We  shall,  of  course,  treat  all  information  you  may 
give  us  as  entirely  confidential. 

Yours  respectfully, 

Lee,  Davis  &  Brockway 

7s  the  applicant  honest?  : 

Has  the  applicant  any  bad  habits?  

Is  the  general  conduct  of  the  applicant  such  as  to  entitle  her  to  the  confidence 

of  her  employers?  

Why  did  she  leave  your  employ?  .... 

Do  you  consider  the  applicant  qualified  for  the  position  applied  for? 

Remarks: 

Dated Signed 

Official  position  of  signer 


Requests  that  cannot  be  reduced  to  printed  forms  should, 
if  possible,  be  accompanied  by  typewritten  forms  ready  for 
filling  in.  Where  this  is  impractical  the  question  should  usually 
be  put  first,  to  .be  followed  by  a  statement  of  the  reasons  for  the 
request.  This  saves  the  first  reader  the  time  required  to  run 


308  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

through  a  long  explanation  only  to  find  that  the  inquiry  does  not 
concern  him  directly. 

(Inconvenient  form  of  inquiry)  (A  better  form) 

•Iniirn:  Gentleman: 

I  am  compiling  a  textbook  to  be  Will  you  make  for  me  a  list  of 
used  in  the  public    high    schools  the   first   one   hundred    media   in 
on  the  science  of  advertising,  and  America    for   advertising,    say,    a 
knowing  that  you  write  more  ad ver-  safety  razor  or  a  household  neces- 
tifiing  than  any  other  firm  in  Amer- 
ica, I  am  asking  you  for  a  list  of  the  This  may  look  to  you  like  a  pretty 
one  hundred  best  media  in  A mrrira  big  request  and   it   is.      Let   me 
for  advertising,  say,  a  safety  razor  explain, 
or  a  household  necessity.  I  am  compiling,  etc. 

There  is  another  point,  to  be  gained  by  the  arrangement  in 
column  2.  Business  men  receive  a  large  number  of  foolish 
letters;  hence,  they  are  always  alert  at  looking  for  the  letter 
which  needs  only  a  short  note  of  refusal.  Such  an  attitude  is 
bad  for  your  letter.  The  "question  first"  arrangement  is 
businesslike  and  will  receive  the  attention  of  a  business 'man. 

The  question  of  the  proper  thanks  for  a  favor  is  one  of  some 
delicacy.  Too  fervid  thankfulness  is  servile;  too  little  is 
discourteous.  If  possible,  show  the  reader  that  he  is  serving 
business,  or  education,  or  humanity,  or  some  general  good  in 
his  reply.  Then  thank  him  once  courteously,  and  close.  The 
following  is  a  suggested  ending  for  the  letter  above: 

Advertising  is  the  youngest  of  the  great  business  professions.  You, 
and  I,  and  all  business  men,  are  vitally  interested  in  establishing  the 
principles  of  the  profession  on  honest  and  intelligent  grounds.  Hence  I 
have  ventured  to  make  my  request.  I  hope  I  may  sometime  have  the 
opportunity  to  thank  you  personally  for  your  trouble,  which  I  fully 
appreciate. 

Yours  very  truly, 

223.  Refusing  the  Letter  of  Request.  There  are  compara- 
tively few  times  in  letter  writing  when  we  is  better  than  /,  but 
the  distant  and  official-sounding  we  is  the  better  word  in  re- 
fusing a  request.  Of  course,  any  business  man  must  refuse 
requests,  for  there  are  people  who  seek,  for  insufficient  reasons 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  309 

or  no  reasons  at  all,  to  pry  into  all  kinds  of  business  secrets. 
In  writing  the  letter,  make  it  seem  that  the  refusal  is  a  matter 
of  policy  and  not  of  personality.  Do  not  apologize,  for 
explanation  only  sets  the  questioner  arguing.  A  possible 
letter  of  refusal  follows: 

Dear  Sir: 

We  are  sorry  that  we  cannot  grant  your  request  of  Dec.  14,  to  be 
allowed  to  take  photographs  in  our  factory.  Our  rules  are  specifically 
against  this,  and  we  in  this  office  have  no  authority  to  suspend  them. 

Yours  truly, 

EXERCISE  2O3 

Ask  a  truck-forming  automobile  company  how  much  they 
will  charge  to  convert  your  old  automobile  into  a  truck  ser- 
viceable for  your  business.  Organize  your  letter  and  be  very 
definite  in  descriptions. 

Or,  ask  a  sewing-machine  manufacturer  why  your  machine 
always  breaks  thread  smaller  than  No.  60.  Give  him  name 
and  model  and  date  of  purchase. 

EXERCISE  2O4 

Ask  a  successful  poultry-man  to  send  you  pictures  of 
his  finest  stock  for  use  in  the  class  in  agriculture  at  your  high 
school. 

EXERCISE  2O5 

Write  a  letter  refusing  permission  to  a  man  who  has  written 
you  that  he  wants  to  hunt  on  your  farm. 

224.  The  Buying  Letter.  The  purpose  of  the  buying  letter 
is  to  give  the  receiver  such  information  that  he  can  deliver  to 
the  writer  the  goods  wanted.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  the 
writer  must,  in  every  case,  give  thought  to  the  following: 

1.  An  accurate  description  of  the  articles  wanted. 

2.  Shipping  instructions  and  address.     The  writer  knows 
what  railroads  or  express  companies  serve  him  best.     He  may 
want  the  goods  quickly  and  be  willing  to  pay  the  higher  express 
rates,  or  he  may  be  willing  to  wait  for  slower  and  cheaper 


310  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

transportation.  Settlinir  thrse  details  costs  the  shipper  much 
time,  whereas  a  few  words  from  the  writer  cost  little. 

3.  The  terms  of  payment.  Business  is  done  for  money. 
There  must  always  be  a  statement,  or  an  understanding  based 
on  previous  business,  with  regard  to  the  terms. 

225.  Form  of  the  Buying  Letter.  If  the  buying  letter  is 
introduced  by  a  simple  statement  similar  to  that  in  the  ri^lit- 
hand  column  below,  the  order  may  be  written  in  block  form 
on  the  same  sheet.  If,  however,  the  letter  part  is  of  such 
importance  that  it  requires  consideration,  the  order  should  l>< 
written  on  a  separate  sheet.  Some  companies  copy  orders 
on  prepared  blanks,  a  sheet  being  sent  to  each  department 
concerned.  Other  houses  send  the  original  order  from  depart- 
ment to  department,  each  article  being  checked  and  signed 
for  as  it  is  sent  to  the  shipping  room.  In  every  case,  the 
description  of  the  goods  should  be  set  in  a  narrower  column 
than  the  rest  of  the  letter,  and  tabulated.  Note  the  difference 
in  ease  of  reading  between  the  following  forms: 

(A  bad  order  form)  (A  better  form) 

Gentlemen :  Gentlemen : 

Please  send  to  the  above  address  Please  send  to  the  above  address, 

one  fountain  pen  No.  37  A,  price  1  Fountain  Pen  No.  37  A.  $5.00 

$5.00,  and  charge  to  my  account.  Charge  to  my  account. 

Yours  truly,  Yours  truly, 

(Hard  to  read — almost  impossible    '  (Easily  read — note  the  space  at  the 

to  check)  left  for  check) 

Kindly  send  us  by  fast  freight  Kindly  send  us  by  fast  freight 

the  following  goods:    5  gross  Ian-  the  following  goods: 

tern  slide  plates,  contrasty;  1  doz.  5    gross    lantern    slide    plates, 

6)^x8)4     Seneca     plate     holders,  contrasty. 

board  slides ;  1  Ib.  can  hydrochinon;  1    doz.    6H*8^    Seneca    plate 

1  hundred  Ib.  keg    pea  hypo;    1  holders,  board  slides, 

gross  Colona  8x10  medium,  single  1  Ib.  can  hydrochinon. 

weight,    glossy;     H    gross    10x12  1—100  Ib.  keg  pea  hypo. 

Cyko  contrast,  semi-matte,  double  1  gross  Colona    8x10    medium, 

weight.  single  weight,  glossy. 

H  gross  Cyko,  10x12  contrast, 
semi-matte,  double  weight. 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  311 

226.  A  Correct  Ordering  Letter.     Students  should  examine 
carefully  the  following  model  letter: 

ANDREWS   &   SABLE 
COMMERCIAL  PHOTOGRAPHERS 

357  W.  63d  St.,  Chicago 
Order  1831 

,  Sept.  24,  1917 

Messrs.  Bauer  &  Kenyon 
224  S.  Wabash  Avenue 

Chicago 
Gentlemen : 

Kindly  ship  us  by  Lincoln  Express  the  following — before  September  26 
if  possible: 

100  doz.  8x10  Medium  Iso. 
100  doz.  6^x8^2  Instantaneous  Iso. 
50  doz.  11x14  Crown. 

As  a  special  favor  we  ask  that  this  order  be  charged  to  our  October 
account. 

Yours  truly, 

Andrews  &  Sable 
By 

EXERCISE  2O6 

1.  Is  the  following  description  sufficient?     Why? 

Kindly  send  me  six  roll  films  for  my  kodak,  six  exposure,  extra  rapid, 
non-curling. 

2.  Can  the  following  order  be  filled?     Why? 

November  10,  1916 
McGuire  &  Brown 

Madison  and  State  Sts. 

Chicago 
Gentlemen : 

Kindly  send  me  C.  O.  D.  the  following  goods: 
1  box  Holeproof  hose,  llj^,  black. 
1  Conklin  fountain  pen,  fine,  self -filler,  $2.50  size. 
1  Ib.  box  Quaker  chocolates,  bittersweet. 

Yours  truly, 

Richard  Henderson 


312  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

3.  Criticize  the  following  if  necessary: 

10054  Wood  Street,  Chicago 

November  10,  1916 
Scott,  Maynard  A  Co. 
315  W.  Jackson  St. 
Denver,  Colo. 
Gentlemen!  • 

Please  send  to  me  parcel  post  one  raincoat,  size  44. 

Yours  truly, 

Henry  Camp 

4.  How  many  and  what  conditions  are  necessary  in  ordering 
a  watch?    Arrange  the  conditions  in  logical  order. 

5.  Criticize  the  following: 

Hall  and  Montague 
6330  Yale  Ave. 

Cleveland,  Ohio 
Dear  Sirs: 

Kindly  sm.l  rn<>  tin*  following  goods: 

1  man's  shirt,  17H.  full  size,  blue  stripes  or  black  dots $1.50 

1  spool  cotton  thread,  white 05 

1  pair  men's  gloves,  black  ki<  1  1  50 

Inclosed  find  my  check  for  $3.05. 

Yours  truly. 

Mrs.  Andrew  Cropper 

6.  Write  a  letter  to  Sumner,  Field  &  Company,  Chicago, 
ordering  a  pair  of  shoes.    At  first  thought  this  may  seem  an 
uninteresting  task;  however,  if  you  begin  to  check  all  the  specifi- 
cations, you  will  find  something  to  think  about. 

227.  Letters  Acknowledging  Orders.  All  orders  of  what- 
ever size  should  be  acknowledged  unless  shipment  can  be 
made  very  quickly.  Acknowledging  an  order  for  a  dollar's 
worth  of  goods  seems  hardly  to  pay.  The  writer,  however, 
must  look  for  his  profit  in  the  appreciation  and  good  will  of 
his  customer.  The  next  order  may  be  worth  while.  An 
acknowledgment  of  an  order  should: 

1.  State  the  date  the  order  was  written  and,  if  undue  time 
has  elapsed,  the  date  of  its  receipt. 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  313 

2.  Give  the  number  of  the  customer's  order  if  the  number 
system  is  used,  and  the  number  assigned  to  it  by  the  receiver. 

3.  State  the  general  nature  of  the  goods  .ordered. 

4.  Give   assurances   regarding   the   time   and   manner   of 
filling  the  order. 

5.  Thank  the  customer  for  his  confidence.     (Not  regularly 
at  the  end,  however,  lest  the  statement  become  only  a  form.) 

228.  An  Acknowledgment.     Study  the  following  model  of 
a  letter  of  acknowledgment: 

BAUER    &     KENYON 

PHOTOGRAPHERS'  SUPPLIES,  PRINTING  AND  DEVELOPING 
224  SOUTH  WABASH  AVENUE,  CHICAGO 

Sept.  25,  1917 
Messrs.  Andrews  &  Sable 
357  W.  63d  Street, 

Chicago 
Gentlemen : 

We  have  your  order  No0  1831  of  September  24,  for  250  dozen  plates, 
but  regret  that  we  cannot  furnish  the  Crown  until  next  week.  However,  we 
are  hurrying  our  order  No.  A-231  lor  200  dozen  Medium  and  Instantaneous 
Iso  for  shipment  September  26  by  Lincoln  Express,  and  we  shall  back 
order  50  dozen  11x14  Crown  for  delivery  not  later  than  September  29,  our 
order  No.  A-232. 

Thank  you  for  the  order.  We  have  already  notified  the  accounts 
department  to  bill  it  for  October. 

Yours  truly, 

Bauer  &  Kenyon 
By 

229.  Letters  Transmitting  Money.1     Enclosures  of  money 
should  never  be  made  except  when  accompanied  by  a  letter 
of  which  the  sender  keeps  a  copy.     The  letter  should  note 
the  number  of  the  draft,  check,  or  money  order,  the  amount, 
and  the  purpose.     A  carbon  copy  of  these  conditions  has  more 
than  once  enabled  the  sender  to  avoid  paying  bills  a  second 
time,  and  has  led  to  the  recovery  of  lost  or  stolen  money. 

Very  small  amounts  may  be  sent  in  postage  stamps. 
No  currency  should  be  sent  through  the  mail,  for  there  are 
means  of  payment  which  are  entirely  safe. 

*For  forms  of  checks,  drafts,  etc.,  see  Appendix  B,  pages  366-368. 


314  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Thr  post-office  order  is  always  safe.     The  exprrs- 
order  is  similar  to  the  post-office  money  order. 

Personal  checks  should  not  be  sent  except  locally.  When 
a  check  gets  far  from  home  the  holder  has  to  pay  exchange, 
which  he  always  charges,  mentally  at  least,  to  the  maker.  A 
certified  check  also  involves  exchange,  but  is  much  more 
desirable.  A  personal  check  is  backed  only  by  the  horn-sty 
of  one  man.  A  bank  stands  back  of  the  certified  check.  The 
process  is  simple.  A  duly  authorized  officer  writes  or  stamps 
"certified"  and  his  name  and  position  across  the  face  of  the 
check  and  orders  the  amount  withdrawn  at  once  from  the 
maker's  checking  account,  thus  insuring  payment  when  the 
check  is  presented. 

Most  payments  at  a  distance  are  made  by  the  bank  draft, 
which  is  really  only  a  check  which  one  bank  draws  upon  anot  her. 
Just  as  in  a  check  Smith  orders  the  First  National  Bank  to  pay 
Jones,  in  a  bank  draft  the  First  National  Bank  of  Chicago 
orders  the  Manhattan  Bank  of  New  York  to  pay  a  bill  in  that 
city,  upon  presentation  of  the  draft.  Whenever  the  banks  of 
oiie  section  of  the  country  get  a  considerable  indebtedness  upon 
those  of  another  section,  currency  is  sent  by  express  to  discharge 
the  debt.  This  does  not  often  happen,  because  indebtedness 
'  in  New  York  is  balanced  against  indebtedness  in  Chicago, 
thereby  canceling  both. 

All  drafts  and  money  orders  are  known  by  number,  and  all 
good  business  men  number  their  checks.  The  number  of  a 
check,  its  amount,  the  payee,  etc.,  make  a  very  valuable  record. 
Examine  the  following  example  of  a  good  letter  of  remittance: 

Gentlemen : 

In  this  letter  you  will  find  our  check  No.  62421  for 
$287.71  in  payment  of  your  invoice  No.  A-632. 
Yours  truly, 

EXERCISE  2O7 

Pay  a  firm  at  least  five  hundred  miles  away  the  sum  of 
$350.  Their  invoice  number  was  5431.  You  are  paying 
within  ten  days  and  may  deduct  2%. 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS 


315 


230.  The  Adjustment  Letter.  The  first  thing  for  any  busi- 
ness man  to  resign  himself  to  is  the  certainty  of  letters  of 
complaint.  However  much  he  may  try  always  to  satisfy,  he 
will  at  times  fail,  sometimes  through  no  fault  of  his,  and  at 
other  times  through  oversight  in  his  own  office. 

A  second  fact  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  that  most  people  are 
honest.  Successful  business  men  have  generally  adopted  a 
working  rule  that  the  customer  is  always  right. 

Keeping  the  old  customer  is  sound  business  sense.  Small 
things  have  a  way,  too  often,  of  causing  great  enmities;  too 
of  ten -a  point,  of  no  real  consequence  will  break  up  business  re- 
lations of  years.  Adjust  such  differences;  keep  the  old  customer. 

The  most  important  quality  in  sustaining  desirable  business 
relations  is  tact.  This  word  may  need  explanation.  The 
dictionary  defines  it  as  a  quick  and  intuitive  appreciation  of  what 
is  fit.  In  business,  tact  means  changing  places  with  the  other 
fellow.  It  means  sympathy  with  his  point  of  view  first,  and, 
if  necessary,  argumentation  afterward. 


(A  letter  lacking  in  tact) 
Dear  Sir: 

Most  of  tlie  damage  of  the  kind 
you  mention  in  your  letter  of  June 
^14,  is  the  result  of  carelessness  in 
uncrating.  When  a  man  rips  open 
one  end  of  a  crate,  he  should  make 
sure  that  the  other  end  isn't  digging 
into  the  furniture.  Our  packers 
are  unusually  careful  to  see  that  all 
delicate  parts  are  fully  protected. 

If  you  will  return  the  damaged 
table  leg,  we  will  repair  it. 
Yours  truly, 
(Criticism) 

The  carping  tone  of  this  letter 
is  sure  to  aggravate  an  already 
unpleasant  condition.  The  offer 
at  the  end  seems  to  come  as  a 
petulant  condescension  rather  than 
as  an  effort  to  assist. 


(A  better  form) 
Dear  Sir: 

We  were  sorry  to  learn  this 
morning  of  the  damage  to  the 
table  leg.  Tracing  the  cause  of 
this  kind  of  damage  is  not  worth 
the  time,  since  the  trouble  may 
lie  in  the  crating,  shipping,  draying, 
or  uncrating.  We  shall,  however, 
call  our  shippers'  attention  to  the 
condition,  and  we  suggest  that  you 
ask  your  men  to  be  careful  in 
uncrating;  thus  we  may  both  help 
to  avoid  damage  of  this  kind. 

If  you  will  unbolt  the  leg  and 
ship  it  to  us,  we  will  have  it  repaired 
immediately. 

Yours  very  truly, 
(Commendation) 

This  letter  is  sympathetic,  and 
yet  it  insists  on  care  in  uncrating. 


316  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

A  second  quality  of  a  good  adjustment  letter  is  one  common 
to  all  business  letters — promptness.  The  necessity  of  quick 
reply  in  such  cases  is  even  more  urgent  than  usual,  because 
the  man  making  the  complaint  is  displeased,  and  consequently 
impatient  of  delay. 

A  third  quality  is  thoroughness.  A  well  conducted  business 
will  be  systematized  to  the  point  where  records  are  quickly 
available,  from  which  a  thoroughly  efficient  letter  may  be 
written.  Adjustments  should  be  a  part  of  the  business  just 
as  service  stations  now  belong  to  the  automobile  industry,— 
not  a  necessary  evil  to  be  slighted  whenever  it  seems  possible. 

231.  The  "Mean"  Letter.  It  is  human  nature  to  want  to 
strike  back.  Business  men  often  receive  mail  of  a  very  exas- 
perating kind;  but  the  wise  correspondent  does  not  reply  in 
kind,  for  he  knows  that  anger  is  always  undignified.  He  cannot 
afford  to  descend  to  the  level  of  the  brawler,  thereby  unfitting 
himself  for  courteous  writing  for  several  hours  after.  Two 
ways  are  open  to  the  receiver  of  a  "mean"  letter:  (a)  He  can 
fail  (apparently)  to  notice  that  the  letter  differs  at  all  from 
other  adjustment  requests,  (b)  He  can  return  a  soft  answer 
to  accusations  and  sarcasm.  The. former  is  the  better  method 
of  procedure  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten.  The  latter  method 
ought  to  be  tried  only  by  the  experienced  correspondent. 
Charles  Dickens  once  closed  a  letter  to  Sheridan  Knowles,  in 
reply  to  an  angry  letter  Knowles  had  written  him,  with  the 
following  words: 

You  write  as  few  lines  which,  dying,  you  would  wish  to 
blot,  as  most  men.  But  if  you  ever  know  me  better,  as  I  hope 
you  may  (the  fault  shall  not  be  mine  if  you  do  not),  I  know 
you  will  be  glad  to  have  received  the  assurance  that  some 
part  of  your  letter  has  been  written  on  the  sand,  and  that 
the  wind  has  already  blown  over  it. 

Faithfully  yours  always, 

Charles  Dickens 

EXERCISE  2O8 

Reply  to  the  following.     Explain  that  you  bought  some 
stock  of  a  competitor  and  that  an  inexperienced  clerk,  failing 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  317 

to  note  that  the  competitor's  numbers  duplicated  your  own, 
had  shipped  the  wrong  goods. 

Gentlemen : 

We  ordered  from  you  August  24,  our  order  No.  683,  fifty-six  lantern 
slides  on  agriculture.  We  were  careful  to  give  you  the  correct  numbers, 
yet  ten  of  these  slides  were  views  of  types  of  architecture.  We  are  sending 
you  a  copy  of  the  order,  on  which  we  have  checked  the  goods  which  we 
find  satisfactory.  Will  you  see  to  this  at  once,  as  our  customer  is  impatient? 

Yours  truly, 

Davis  &  Co. 

EXERCISE  2O9 

Write  explaining  that  there  was  some  uncertainty  as  to  your 
ability  to  fill  the  following  order,  and  after  settling  this  matter 
you  had  forgotten  to  acknowledge  the  order.  Apologize  and 
promise  immediate  shipment.  ¥ 

257  W.  84  St.,  Chicago 

June  24,  1917 

Messrs.  Donald,  Andrews  &  Co. 
327  Front  St. 

Detroit,  Michigan 
Gentlemen : 

More  than  a  week  ago  I  ordered  a  table  and  six  dining  chairs.  I  have 
heard  nothing  from  you.  Did  you  receive  the  order  and  the  money?  If 
so,  why  don't  you  let  me  know?  When  am  I  to  get  my  table?  Ever? 

Yours  truly, 

Mrs.  Mary  Hazelton 

EXERCISE  21O 

You  receive  the  following  letter: 

Hazelhurst,  la. 

Dec.  10,  1917 
A.  C.  Knyht  Co. 

2046  Wood  St. 
Chicago 
Sirs: 

More  than  three  weeks  ago  I  ordered  a  shotgun  from  you,  and  I  sent 
the  money, — 18  dollars.  I  was  in  a  hurry,  and  so  I  mailed  the  letter  on 
the  train.  1  haven't  heard  from  you  and  I  haven't  received  my  gun  or 
my  money.  You  are  a  bunch  of  robbers.  I'm  going  to  get  the  post-office 
authorities  after  you.  I  want  to  do  business  with  honest  men. 

Fred  Keim 


318  \  «  M  ATIONAL  ENGLISH 

You  find  that  Mr.  Keim's  order  has  been  sent  to  the  trouble 
department  and  that  it  reads: 

Nov.  18,  1917 
A.  C.  Knyht  Co. 

"2046  Wood  St. 
Chicago 
Gentlemen: 

Please  send  me  one  shot  Rim  like  that  on  page  16  of  your  catalog.  I 
am  sending  you  $18.00  in  currency. 

Yours  truly, 

FredKeim 

Reply  to  Mr.  Keim's  letter  of  Dec.  10. 

232.  The  Sales  Letter.    The  sections  immediately  following 
treat  of  the  letter  written  to  a  person  in  an  effort  to  interest 
h  i  i  n  in  certain  goods  or  service.    The  letter  does  not  presuppose 
previous  correspondence. 

The  sales  letter  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  the  business 
letters,  because  you  have  to  create  an  interest.  When  a  man 
writes  to  you  inquiring  about  an  article,  you  can  count  on  his 
reading  your  reply,  but  when  you  write  the  first  letter  you  must 
make  it  so  interesting  that  he  will  read  it.  Otherwise  your 
letter  is  a  dead  loss  to  you. 

Read  again  what  was  said  in  Section  190  regarding  appeal, 
and  adapting  the  letter  to  the  receiver.  Thousands  of  letters 
daily  go  straight  into  people's  waste  baskets  because  they  fail 
to  interest. 

233.  Divisions  of  a  Selling  Letter.     There  are  four  natural 
steps  in  a  good  selling  letter.    They  are  (a)  getting  attention 
and  holding  it  until  the  main  proposition  can  be  presented; 
(b)  explaining  the  product  or  proposition;  (c)  explaining  how 
the  proposition  applies  to  the  reader  personally,  how  he  will 
profit  therefrom;  and  (d)  "clinching  the  deal."    This  all  looks 
easy — so  does  playing  the  violin,  in  which  all  one  needs  to  do  is 
to  put  his  fingers  on  the  right  spot  and  draw  the  bow  across 
the  proper  string.    Yet  there  are  fiddlers  and  violinists. 

234.  Getting  Attention.    All  men  are  curious;  they  will 
"try  anything  once."     The  man  who  opens  your  letter  wants 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  319 

to  know  what  it  is  about;  but  he  must  be  interested  or  into 
the  waste  basket  goes  your  "esteemed  favor/'  Bear  in  mind 
that  it  is  your  fault  if  he  fails  to  read  it.  The  opening  lines 
must  catch  his  attention.  No  openings  like  "We  have  in  our 
new  line  of  fall  goods"  will  be  effective.  He  hasn't  time  to 
give  thought  to  your  business;  he  is  too  much  interested  in  his 
own.  You  must  show  him  that  your  letter  is  his  business,  and 
to  do  this  you  must  catch  his  interest  at  the  first  glance. 

"My  dear  Sir:  We've  just  learned  something  you  ought 
to  know/'  is  a  good  beginning,  because  all  men  want  to  learn, 
especially  about  their  business.  "Burglars  enter  through  a 
window  nine  times  out  of  ten,"  will  fix  the  attention  of  all 
women  and  most  men  long  enough  for  the  writer  to  get  into 
his  subject.  "It  takes  twenty  men  to  make  a  pin,"  will  do 
very  well,  because  it  arouses  curiosity;  you  read  farther  to  find 
out  what  division  of  labor  is  made  in  so  small  a  task. 

These  catch  phrases  must  be  honest  and  related  to  the 
subject.  It  was  the  custom  a  few  years  ago  to  head  patent 
medicine  advertisements  with  a  line  which  caught  the  eye 
and  fooled  the  reader  into  reading  an  advertising  paragraph. 
'This  practice  is  no  longer  common,  probably  because  the  adver- 
tisers learned  that  it  does  not  pay  to  trick  a  reader.  A  mistaken 
letter  writer  began  a  phonograph  sales  letter  with  "Stop! 
Look!  Listen!"  but  followed  with  not  a  word  about  danger 
or  railroad  crossings.  The  letter  was  unsuccessful,  because  it 
began  with  what  was  too  evidently  only  a  cheap  device  for 
attracting  attention. 

The  "attention  compeller"  need  not  be  a  startling  statement. 
Often  a  mention  of  the  goods,  if  phrased  in  a  way  to  make  the 
matter  interesting,  is  sufficient. 

EXAMPLE:    The  ripe  olive,  full  of  its  own  rich  oil,  is  a  delight.     The 
olives  are  picked,  etc. 

The  reader  will  follow  readily  into  a  description  of  olive  raising. 

235.  The  First  Impression.     The  writer  must  change  places 

mentally  with  the  reader.     He  must  try  his  writing  upon 

himself  and  mark  well  his  own  feelings.     If  the  words  produce 


320  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

anger,  fear,  or  unpleasant  memories,  they  must  not  be  used. 
A  phonograph  salesman  writing  to  a  ranchman  and  desiring  to 
point  out  the  loneliness  of  the  country  and  the  lack  of  enter- 
tainment, wrote,  "Are  your  children  learning  anything  in  Moon- 
ville?"  Now  if  there  is  anything  dear  to  a  man  it  is  his  children . 
and  the  mere  insinuation  that  they  are  growing  up  ignorant  in 
a  wild  place,  is  the  more  likely  to  anger  him  because  it  may  be 
true.  Avoid  seeming  to  notice  any  unpleasant  conditions  in  a 
man's  location  or  employment.  Do  not  speak  directly,  for 
instance,  of  the  hot  weather  of  a  particular  section.  You  may 
with  profit  speak  of  hot  weather,  but  you  should  make  the  «  n- 
dition  general;  otherwise  the  reader  may  resent  your  words. 

Use  care  in  asking  questions,  for  there  may  be  the  assump- 
tion of  a  negative  answer  which  will  be  uncomplimentary 
"Are  you  an  honest  man?"  is  a  bad  start.  Most  men  resent 
even  a  question  of  their  honesty.  A  circular  letter  to  a  plumber 
began,  "Do  you  want  a  good  reputation  as  a  plumber?" 
Probably  most  readers  replied,  at  least  mentally,  "I  have  a  good 
reputation,  thank  you!"  and  threw  the  letter  away. 

Summed  up,  the  impression  the  writer  must  give  through 
his  letter  does  not  differ  from  that  he  would  want  to  make  • 
in  a  face-to-face  conversation. 

236.  Passing  to  the  Explanation  or  Description.  The 
transition  from  the  opening  sentence  to  the  description  of  the 
article  for  sale  is  very  important.  If  the  first  sentence  is  too 
far  afield,  the  reader  will  feel  that  you  have  used  it  only  to 
catch  him,  and  he  will  not  read  farther.  One  way  of  passing 
from  the  "attention  compeller"  to  the  purpose  of  the  letter  is 
to  tell  a  story'  or  to  offer  interesting  information.  Note  the 
skill  with  which  the  writer  of  the  following  letter  passed  from 
Napoleon  to  the  safety  razor: 

Napoleon  was  deathly  afraid  of  a  razor.  He  never  permitted  any 
one  near  him  with  an  open  razor.  He  did  his  own  shaving  and,  owing 
to  a  sensitive  skin,  never  could  get  a  razor  that  pleased  him.  The  one 
that  annoyed  him  least  was  picked  up  during  the  Peninsular  Campaign 
and  had  a  blade  of  Saracen  steel.  Today  nearly  all  the  World's  Rulers 
use  a Razor.  .  .  . 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  321 

The  interest  every  man  has  in  his  own  business  offers 
the  writer  a  chance  which  he  ought  not  to  overlook.  A  business 
man  is  always  interested  in  cutting  down  operating  expenses. 
Note  how  the  writer  used  this  fact  in  the  following  letter  to 
a  large  manufacturer: 

Dear  Sir: 

Do  you  pay  your  men  for  useless  walking?  It  may  be  that  more  of 
your  money  is  slipping  away  with  the  shoe  leather  of  your  employees 
than  you  suspect.  It  takes  time  for  a  man  to  move  forty  feet  and  adjust 
himself  to  a  new  task,  perhaps  having  to  return  for  other  tools  or  more 
supplies.  And  every  time  he  shuffles  about  your  shop  he  gets  in  another 
man's  way  and  costs  you  some  more  money.  Now  we  can  stop  all  this. 
(Selling  automatic  traveling  cranes.) 

EXERCISE  211 

Which  of  these  beginning  lines  are  good  and  which  are  bad? 
Discuss  each  one  carefully  with  your  teacher. 

1.  Dear  Sir:    You  carry  life  insurance  of  course.    How  about  poison 
insurance?    How  do  you  know  that  your  wife  or  your  child  won't  take 
carbolic  acid  for  cough  medicine?    You  are  careful,  of  course.     But  are 
you  sure?     (Selling  a  first-aid  medicine  cabinet.) 

2.  Dear  Sir:     Do  you  want  to  enjoy  life?    You  cannot  find  better 
amusement  than  in  one  of  our  phonographs. 

3.  Are  you  willing  to  let  the  other  fellow  get  ahead  of  you?     One  of 
your  customers  writes  us  that  you  don't  carry  our  unexcelled  line  of  soups. 
He  may  go  elsewhere  and  you  will  lose  his  trade. 

4.  Dear  Madam:    A  word  about  your  children.     Mothers  know  the 
importance  of  bringing  up  the  child  to  appreciate  good  taste.     The  school 
years  are  vital  and  there's  much  for  the  child  to  learn  besides  arithmetic. 
(Talk  on  clothing.) 

5.  Dear  Madam:    Are  you  interested  in  your  children?     Do  you  want 
them  to  look  decent?    You  know  the  school  years  are  most  important. 
(Selling  clothing.) 

6.  Dear  Sir:     Railroads  use  sand;  wise  men  wear  rubber  heels;  but 
the  wisest  of  them  all  is  the  man  who  equips  his  car  with  non-skid  chains. 

EXERCISE  212 

Begin  a  letter  to  a  teacher  in  the  grades  intended  to  interest 
her  in  a  summer  resort.  What  one  quality  or  condition  do  you 
want  to  stress?  Is  it  rest  and  beauty,  or  freedom  from  little 
worries?  Perhaps  you  want  to  emphasize  health  or  cheapness. 


322  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Choose  your  best  argument  and  give  the  proper  impression  in 
the  first  lines. 

237.  The  Description.  If  you  are  a  good  writer,  the  reader 
is  interested  at  this  stage.  He  may  be  hoping  that  you  can  help 
him — that  you  can  save  money  for  him  or  increase  his  efficiency 
or  comfort;  or  perhaps  he  is  merely  interested.  Your  task 
now  is  to  make  him  see  the  details  you  wish  to  present.  If  you 
are  selling  a  machine,  your  description  must  be  so  clear  that 
he  will  see  the  parts  of  the  machine  and  understand  why  you 
are  enthusiastic.  If  you  are  selling  service,  make  the  working 
details  very  plain. 

This  is  not  so  easy  as  it  may  at  first  seem.  Business  calls 
for  imagination — not  the  kind  which  pictures  fanciful  things, 
but  that  which  sees  real  possibilities  and  describes  them  so 
clearly  that  the  reader  also  sees.  Avoid,  then,  any  phrase  or 
word  that  has  lost  its  meaning.  "That's  what  they  all  say" 
is  a  slang  phrase,  but  it  expresses  well  the  state  of  mind  of  the 
man  who  reads,  "Our  product  is  best,"  "made  of  the  highest 
grade  oak,"  "quality  unexcelled,"  etc.  These  phrases  have 
lost  their  power.  Business  letters  must  be  written  with  some- 
thing of  the  same  force  and  freshness  which  literature  has 
always  demanded. 

Avoid  explaining  the  merits  of  an  article  at  too  great  length. 
Do  not  detail  too  many  merits.  Concentrate  rather  on  one 
thing — the  comfort  of  a  chair,  or  the  accuracy  of  a  watch. 

Compare  the  force  of  the  description  in  the  following 
advertising  letters: 

The watch  is  a  fine          ....  a    watch    that    is    both 

time  keeper,  durable  and  hand-  ornament  and  instrument.  A  watch 
some — the  best  "buy'1  on  the  to  be  worn,  not  just  "carried.11 
market  today.  A  watch  which  shows  on  the  face 

of  it  that  it  is  heir  to  a  fine  old 
tradition  and  will  beat  true  to  it 
(Criticism)  through  life. 

Excessive  use  of  commonplace  (Commendation) 

adjectives  like  fine,  durable,  hand-  Here  is  an  original  description. 

some,  etc.,  has  weakened  this  kind  It  carries  conviction.  But  one  qual- 
of  description.  ity,  elegance,  is  here  discussed. 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  323 

A  packing  house  writes:  "Do  you  remember  the  smell  of 
hickory  smoke  that  suggested  biscuits  to  the  boy  of  years  ago? 
You  get  it  again  with  our  Plantation  brand  hams,  cured,"  etc. 
That  figure  will  not  be  so  powerful  as  the  generations  change, 
but  it  brings  to  the  man  who  remembers  the  old  wood  stove, 
the  memory  of  good  things  to  eat.  And  when  you  get  a  man's 
"mouth  watering,"  you  are  near  a  sale. 

EXERCISE  213 

Which  of  the  following  descriptions  do  you  consider  good? 
Criticize  the  others.  Discuss  each  with  your  teacher. 

1.  Picture  to  yourself  a  handsome,  high-grade,  beautifully-finished, 
luxuriously  easy-riding  enclosed  coach — put  as  much  quality  into  your 
picture  as  you  can. 

2.  You  want  your  medicine  chest  LOCKED.     And  when  the  accident 
is  fresh  you  don't  want  to  look  for  the  key.     Here's  the  solution.     Let 
us  make  your  combination  any  two  numbers  you  choose — numbers  you 
and  your  wife  can't  forget — baby's  birthday,  for  instance.    Antiseptic 
bandages,  disinfectants,  antidotes,  first-aid  book — always  ready.    Always 
locked.    You  don't  know  how  much  you  may  appreciate  this  some  day. 

3.  This  is  an  easy  car  to  drive.     It  is  easily  repaired,  but  seldom 
needs  to  be.     It  is  durable  for  your  line  of  business.     It  is  also  a  car  that 
you  need  not  be  ashamed  of. 

4.  Our  phonographs  are  made  of  the  best  seasoned  wood.     They 
stand  about  four  feet  high,  but  are  on  the  highest  grade  ball-bearing 
castors,  which  permit  them  to  be  moved  about  the  room  at  will.     They 
have  a  fine  tone.     Don't  buy  any  other. 

5.  There  is  no  necessity  for  library  paste  to  dry  out.     You  need  not 
try  to  use  the  hardened  brush  with  its  tin  top  attached.     We  have  a 
simple  container  with  a  water  division  which  keeps  both  brush  and  paste 
soft — ready  for  instant  use. 

6.  In  no  country  in  the  world  are  the  soil  and  climate  better  suited 
for  growing  pineapples  than  Hawaii.     Here  this  rich,  luscious  fruit  is 
grown  in  its  highest  state  of  perfection.     It  is  allowed  to  ripen  in  the 
beautiful  tropical  sunshine  and  balmy  winds,  and  is  sweeter  and  more  juicy 
than  pineapples  grown  elsewhere.  Great  big  pineapples,  such  as  are  pictured 
above,  are  selected  for  our  Lexington  brand.     They  are  canned  imme- 
diately after  being  picked  and  come  to  you  full  of  the  natural  rich  flavor, 
as  tender  and  juicy  as  though  just  taken  from  the  stem.     We  handle  only 
the  extra  grade,  the  highest  grade,  of  Hawaiian  pineapple  at  lower  prices 
than  it  is  usually  sold  for.     Try  it. 


324  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

% 

238.  The  Application  to  the  Individual.  Let  us  suppose 
that  by  this  time  you  have  told  your  reader  what  you  have  to 
sell.  Suppose  you  have  explained  to  a  woman  the  purity  of 
the  Montrose  brand  of  canned  soups — how  the  vegetables  are 
gathered  and  with  what  sanitary  care  they  have  been  handled. 
You  need  now  to  connect  all  this  directly  with  her  life.  You 
iniirht  picture  to  her  the  advantages  of  a  warm,  instantly  pre- 
pared dinner  after  a  cold  day's  shopping.  You  might  point 
out  to  her  the  comfort  she  will  take  in  the  thought  of  a  delici*  >us 
first  course  when  company  comes  unexpectedly.  Here  is  an 
opportunity  to  work  "you"  into  your  letters.  Point  out  to 
the  man  who  gets  in  from  a  hard  day's  work — "How  refreshed 
your  feet  feel,  what  a  wonderful  measure  of  comfort  you 
experience,  after  you  release  them  from  the  stiff  leather  shoes 
of  an  evening  and  slip  into  a  soft,  easy-fitting  pair  of  . 
slippers!" 

EXERCISE  214 

Discuss  the  following  paragraphs  with  the  teacher.  These 
paragraphs  are  assumed  to  follow  explanation  of  the  articles. 

1.  To  a  general  storekeeper  in  a  small  town: 

I  heard  a  woman  say  the  other  day  that  she  could  get  better  bargains 
at  the  small  store  in  spite  of  the  higher  price. 

"I  can  explain  that  easily,"  I  told  her.  The  small  storekeeper  must 
depend  on  come-back  business.  Eclectic  knit  goods  brings  'em  back. 
When  you  sell  one  of  our  union  suits,  point  to  the  label  Eclectic.  Say 
to  your  customer,  "Notice  the  name;  you'll  want  another  of  these  suits 
as  soon  ae  you  feel  the  snug  warm  fit." 

2.  To  a  poultry-raiser:     (Could  this  be  written  by  a  man 
who  doesn't  know  the  poultry  business?) 

There's  no  limit  to  what  a  man  can  make  in  the  business  except  the 
limit  of  time  in  caring  for  the  stock.  When  you  have  to  carry  a  hundred 
frozen  fountains  to  the  service  house,  thaw  them  out,  repair  a  few  dozen 
breaks,  refill  and, carry  them  back  to  the  units,  you  are  paying  a  big  price 
for  something  which  ought  to  be  free — water.  The  Thermaq  does  all  this 
while  you  care  for  the  fowls  and  the  eggs,  and  does  it  much  better  than 
you  can.  The  Thermaq  maintains  a  uniform  temperature  of  from  forty 
to  sixty  degrees  throughout  the  coldest  weather. 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  325 

EXERCISE  215 

Explain  to  a  real  estate  man  how  a  camera  will  suit  his 
purposes.  Take  it  for  granted  that  you  have  proceeded 
through  the  explanation  of  the  mechanism. 

Or  explain  to  a  housewife  how  a  can  of  Benton's  delicious 
soup  will  aid  dinner  when  company  comes  unexpectedly,  or 
when  she  returns,  chilled,  from  a  shopping  trip. 

239.  Making  It  Easy  to  Order.  "Procrastination  [putting 
things  off]  is  the  thief  of  time/'  runs  the  old  saying — old 
because  it  has  been  recognized  for  centuries  as  a  truth.  A 
man,  even  when  convinced,  often  gives  up  to  more  pressing 
affairs  and  puts  aside  your  letter.  Gradually  he  loses  his 
interest,  and  your  effort  has  failed.  There's  just  one  thing 
to  do — make  ordering  so  easy  and  so  natural  that  he  will  act 
in  the  next  minute. 

If  possible,  it  is  wise  to  add  a  time  element.  Make  it  seem 
necessary  to  order  quickly.  "Only  300  sets  left"  is  in  keeping 
with  the  general  idea,  but  overworked.  A  little  thought  will 
generally  discover  some  time  element  that  can  be  used.  Some 
firms  offer  prizes  to  accompany  the  sale  if  the  order  is  received 
by  a  certain  date.  Sometimes  a  time  coupon  is  inclosed,  good 
for  credit  before  a  given  date.  These  devices  originate  in  the 
knowledge  that  allowing  a  man  to  put  a  thing  off  is  not  good 
business. 

Most  men  are  busy — especially  those  who  are  worth  while. 
Sometimes  even  a  little  task  like  writing  a  letter  looms  large 
before  the  man  whose  business  is  crowding  him.  You  must 
do  the  ordering  for  him.  "Give  him  something  to  sign.''  Many 
firms  inclose  order  blanks  which  the  purchaser  may  fill  out  and 
sign,  or  on  which  he  may  check  what  he  wants.  An  addressed 
envelope  helps.  Within  local  distances  the  telephone  may  be 
suggested  as  an  easy  method  of  ordering,  and  many  firms  give 
the  buyer  authority  to  "wire  collect." 

One  of  the  best  incentives  for  quick  action  is  promised 
service.  Make  your  customer  see  you  ready  to  deliver  to  him 
instantly  something  that  you  want  him  to  have  and  that  he 


326  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

wants  to  have.  Make  him  feel  that  you  are  working  for  his 
interest  and  that  you  are  ready  to  do  him  a  favor  at  the  first 
opportunity. 

It  is  never  a  wise  plan  to  attempt  to  frighten  or  coerce  a 
customer.  A  few  years  ago  a  large  department  store  mailed 
thousands  of  numbered  cards  to  prospective  customers. 
Each  number  was  said  to  correspond  to  a  charge  account  in 
the  customer's  name,  and  the  letter  warned  the  receiver  that 
he  had  better  come  in  and  be  identified  to  prevent  some  one's 
learning  his  number  and  running  a  charge  against  him.  That 

letter  made  enemies. 

EXERCISE  a ie 

Study  the  following  letter.  How  many  paragraphs  are 
there?  Why?  What  is  the  work  of  each  paragraph? 

BELL,  BROWN  A  COMPANY 

PROJECTION    APPARATUS 

AURORA,  ILLINOIS 

December  16,  1917 
The  Reverend  M.  A.  Baldwin 
Horttm,  Kansas 
Dear  Mr.  Baldwin: 

When  one  considers  that  three  out  of  four  automobile  bandits  terroriz- 
ing our  cities  are  boys  from  sixteen  to  twenty-one,  he  gets  a  spasm  of 
attention.  "Why?'1  he  asks  himself.  "Is  it  because  the  church  and  the 
school  can't  get  hold  of  the  boy?'1  Doubtless  you  have  studied  this 
matter  closely,  and  we  wish  we  might  talk  with  you  about  it.  It  must 
be  true,  though,  that  good  influences  were  lacking. 

Since  we  must  run  competition  with  immoral  or  at  best  unmoral 
entertainment,  we  might  better  do  it  well.  There  is  no  reason  why  the 
church  shouldn't  have  science  on  its  side.  Science  can  help  wonderful! v. 
The  Edison  laboratories  have  produced  a  new  incandescent  light  brighter 
than  the  arc,  which  can  be  used  in  the  stereopticon.  This  at  last  solves 
the  problem  of  projection,  for  fire  ordinance  prohibitions,  special  wirimr, 
and  cracked  slides  belong  to  the  past.  There  is  no  inferno  of  heat  and 
smoke  and  no  smudged  hands  and  burnt  fingers — just  a  clear  bright 
light,  silent  as  any  ordinary  electric  bulb,  and  safe.  The  minister  will 
especially  appreciate  the  safety. 

You  will  find  this  lantern  invaluable  in  your  work.  It  can  be  used 
in  the  Sunday-school  room  by  unskilled  operators  and  it  is  safe.  It  helps 
to  keep  the  boy  in  Sunday-school — one  of  our  big  problems.  It  can  !  r 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  327 

carried  about  to  the  homes  of  your  parishioners  to  add  to  the  enjoyment 
of  an  .evening.  It  is  strong  enough  to  illustrate  your  Sunday  evening 
lecture.  You  can  use  it  in  club  talks  and  be  free  to  focus  your  entire 
attention  upon  what  you  have  to  say.  Every  pastor  who  has  a  desire 
to  be  a  power  beyond  his  pulpit  should  own  one. 

Why  not  arrange  for  a  trial  now?  You  can  have  a  machine  in  Horton 
for  next  Sunday.  In  the  course  of  a  month  you  can  give  an  entertainment 
and  make  the  machine  pay  for  itself  in  one  night — the  entire  cost  is  only 
$28.75,  and  we  will  give  you  sixty  days  to  pay  for  it.  Perhaps  you  had 
better  wire  us  (at  our  expense)  if  you  want  a  machine  for  Sunday.  Other- 
wise use  the  inclosed  form  and  send  direct  to  us  and  we  will  make  prompt 
delivery — we  await  only  your  word.  • 

Yours  very  truly, 

Bell,  Brown  &  Company, 

By 

EXERCISE  217 

Begin  letters  to  the  following.  Proceed  only  as  far  as  the 
proposition  (or  description). 

1.  A  man  to  whom  you  want  to  sell  life  insurance. 

2.  A  widow  whose  husband  has  left  her  ten  thousand  dollars  in  life 
insurance.     You  have  a  6%  farm  mortgage  offer.     Emphasize  safety. 
(There  are  hundreds  of  men  who  induce  women  to  buy  bad  stocks.     It 
is  said  that  on  an  average  widows  lose  their  life  insurance  money  within 
four  years.) 

3.  You  hope  to  sell  a  man  advertising  space  in  the  Saturday  Evening 
Post. 

4.  You  are  soliciting  funds  for  an  orphan  asylum. 

5.  You  have  an  inquiry  about  your  excellent  burglar  alarm  system. 

EXERCISE  218 

Explain  exactly  how  one  of  the  following  articles  saves 
labor  or  improves  on  older  forms  of  a  similar  thing.  Concen- 
trate on  one  quality;  for  instance,  on  the  durability  of  cypress. 

1.  Lewis  sectional  book  cases. 

2.  The  Johnson  hand  fire  extinguisher. 

3.  The  Thomas  acetylene  unit  light  system  for  the  home. 

4.  * 'Cypress — the  wood  eternal." 

5.  Indian  automatic  revolvers. 

6.  Jones's  metal  lath. 

7.  Bauman's  prepared  soup. 

8.  The  King  safety  razor. 


328  VOCATIONAL,  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  210. 

Make  a  special  application  of  one  of  the  articles  mentioned 
in  Exercise  218  to  the  needs  of  one  of  the  following  persons: 

1.  A  farmer  living  in  Kentucky. 

2.  A  doctor  in  a  small  country  town  in  Montana. 

3.  A  banker  in  Boston. 

4.  A  civil  engineer. 

5.  A  housewife. 

6.  A  lawyer. 

7.  A  building  contractor  in  Chicago. 

8.  A  commercial  salesman. 

9.  A  policeman. 

10.  A  man  who  writes  "i  seen." 

11.  A  ranchman  in  Wyoming. 

EXERCISE  220 

Write  a  "clincher"  or  "action  paragraph"  suited  to  the 
person  addressed  in  Exercise  219. 

EXERCISE  221 

Make  the  closing  proposition  for  any  combination  of 
article  and  person  in  Exercises  218  and  219.  Remember  that 
you  must  make  him  buy.  Get  him  to  do  something. 

EXERCISE  222 

Write  the  complete  selling  letter  prepared  for  in  the  pre- 
ceding exercises,  attempting  to  make  an  easy  and  natural 
transition  from  one  division  to  the  other.  See  that  the  margins, 
spacing,  details  of  necessary  form,  etc.,  are  up  to  standard. 

EXERCISE  223 

Write  a  letter  to  a  druggist,  trying  to  induce  him  to  buy 
a automobile. 

240.  The  Form  Letter.  A  number  of  letters  exactly  alike, 
sent  to  different  people,  constitute  the  form  letter  type.  The 
form  letter  cannot  be  so  personal  as  the  individual  letter.  It 
is  therefore  more  difficult  to  make  effective.  Instead  of  the 
personal  touch,  .the  writer  must  make  good  use  of  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  life  of  the  class  he  is  trying  to  reach.  The 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  329 

"attention  compeller"  must  be  stronger  than  that  of  the  per- 
sonal letter.  It  may  be  perhaps  a  little  less  dignified,  since  its 
results  depend  on  its  effect  on  the  "average  man." 

A  form  letter,  to  be  worth  anything,  must  be  printed  well 
with  reference  to  the  parts  to  be  filled  in  by  typewriter.  A  type 
of  exactly  the  same  kind  and  a  ribbon  which  dries  the  same 
shade  as  the  printed  matter,  are  the  first  requirements.  These 
requirements  are  not  easily  secured,  although  modern  printing 
establishments  can  take  care  of  a  mailing  list  artfully.  Some 
form  letters  have  blanks  in  the  body  of  the  letter  for  the  filling 
in  of  state,  county,  or  other  local  condition. 

Form  letters  should  always  go  sealed.  The  extra  postage 
is  well  spent,  for  the  open  envelope  is  a  blatant  announcement 
of  the  advertisement. 

241.  The  Circular  Letter.     The  circular  letter  is  like  the 
form  letter  except  that  there  is  no  attempt  to  make  it  seem 
personal.     The  salutation  is  Dear  Sir  or  Dear  Mr.  Groceryman 
or  the  like.     There  would  be  little  advantage  in  sending  it 
in  a  sealed  envelope. 

Sometimes  it  is  well  to  announce  that  the  letter  is  a  form 
or  a  circular  letter.  Most  people  will  read  the  proposition 
following  a  beginning  like  this: 

Dear  Sir: 

This  is  a  "form  letter,"  yes,  but  just  the  same  it  contains  two  mighty 
human  questions. 

People  generally  prefer  to  be  addressed  in  a  letter  much  as 
they  would  be  addressed  in  forceful,  but  at  the  same  time 
courteous,  talk.  -  Therefore  the  ordinary  colloquial  contrac- 
tions, and  even  slang  words  that  express  the  meaning  more 
naturally  and  more  directly  than  their  "literary "  substitutes, 
may  sometimes  be  more  desirable.  However,  don't  overdo  the 
slang;  you  had  better  use  too  little  than  too  much. 

242.  The    Follow-up    Letter.     The    business    man    who 
advertises  by  means  of  letters  knows  the  value  of  repetition. 
Some  advertisements,   for  instance  of  the  trade-mark  variety, 
depend  entirely  upon  the  power  of  persistent  suggestion. 


330  VOCATIONAL  l.NCIJSH 

A  great  mail-order  house  in  a  large  western  city  is  able 
to  produce  much  business  by  the  following  type  of  letter  based 
upon  its  filing  records: 

Sept.  1,  1916 

Mr.  Henry  M.  Hood 
Dana,  Illinois 
Dear  Mr.  Hood: 

It  seems  hardly  two  years  since  we  heard  from  you,  yet  our  hooks 
show  that  your  last  order  was  shipped  August  24, 1914.  We  are  wondering 
why  we  haven't  had  more  of  your  business. 

It  occurs  to  us  that  perhaps  we  have  made  some  mistake  in  your 
order.  Perhaps  the  goods  did  not  give  satisfaction.  We  want  to  know 
about  all  such  cases  in  order  to  cast  out  any  articles  that  do  not  please 
our  customers.  We  want  our  customers  to  stand  by  us,  and  certainly 
we  are  doing  everything  we  know  about 'to  aid  them. 

Will  it  be  asking  too  much  of  you  to  write  us  a  letter,  using  the  inclosed 
stamped  envelope  addressed  to  me  personally,  as  I  want  to  know  all  about 
your  case?  Write  to  me  tonight. 

Yours  very  truly, 

Mead  &  Company, 

By  

Superintendent  of  Correspondence 

This  is  only  a  form  letter.  The  letter  is  printed,  not  type- 
written, by  one  of  the  new  processes.  Printing  can  now  be 
made  to  resemble  typewriting  so  closely  that  only  the  expert 
can  identify  it.  Blanks  are  left  for  the  dates,  and  heading 
and  dates  are  cleverly  and  quickly  filled  in.  Each  letter  is 
signed  by  pen  and  has,  for  nine  out  of  ten  men,  the  force  of  a 
personal  letter. 

Many  good  business  houses  follow  up  any  inquiries  from 
which  orders  do  not  result.  Sometimes  two  or  three  letters  are 
sent  at  intervals  of  about  ten  days;  but  it  is  probably  of  doubtful 
value  to  send  more  than  one  such  letter,  for  the  receiver  will 
feel  that  he  has  brought  upon  himself  a  correspondence  attack 
and  will  resent  too  many  letters.  A  kindly  question,  with  a 
statement  that  perhaps  the  house  misunderstood  what  the 
writer  wanted,  is  good  business.  There  is  no  objection  to 
following  this  with  good  sales  talk.  A  form  letter  can  be  used. 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  331 

243.  The  Follow-up  Campaign.  Any  campaign,  to  succeed, 
must  be  organized.  A  successful  football  team  is  more  than 
half  organization.  The  army  with  the  most  carefully  worked- 
out  system  of  supply,  care  of  wounded,  sanitation,  etc.,  makes 
much  the  better  showing.  A  business  allowed  to  run  without 
the  guiding  power  of  a  controlling  mind  is  fortunate  if  it 
escapes  wreck. 

An  assault  upon  a  man's  inclination  to  keep  his  money  in 
his  pocket  is  like  any  other  attack.  The  mere  power  of  reitera- 
tion is  not  enough — the  assault  must  be  made  from  other 
angles  in  the  form  of  new  argument  at  unexpected  places.  The 
wise  business  general  will  therefore  not  use  all  his  ammunition 
\n  the  first  attack.  Each  attempt,  however,  must  be  complete 
m  itself. 

Suppose  the  purpose  of  a  series  of  three  follow-up  letters 
is  to  sell  a  medicine  chest  containing  preventive  drugs  for  use 
in  the  family.  The  "talking  points"  are  as  follows: 

1.  Accidents  come  unexpectedly — be  prepared  with  bandages  and 
antiseptic  chemicals.    Often  an  accident  is  due  to  a  child's  spilling  an 
acid  or  eating  a  dangerous  drug.     Prevent  this  by  having  the  cabinet 
locked. 

2.  Infection  must  be  treated  in  its  early  stages.     What  seems  but  a 
scratch  may  develop  blood  poisoning.     Colds  and  sore  throat  develop 
pneumonia  and  diphtheria.     Prevention  is  generally  easy  in  the  early 
stages — use  the  Complete  First  Aid  Equipment. 

3.  It  is  a  great  advantage  to  be  able  to  diagnose  diseases  of  children — • 
accompanying  indexed  book  explains  symptoms  of  scarlet  fever,  measles, 
chicken  pox,  diphtheria,  with  instructions  for  care,  etc.     Not  intended1 
to  take  the  place  of  the  doctor,  but  to  make  doctors'  calls  fewer  and  insure 
intelligent  care  of  contagious  diseases. 

Three  complete  letters  should  be  written  and  printed 
ready  for  the  address.  The  first  failing,  the  second  is  sent 
about  two  weeks  later.  Each  letter  must  follow  the  natural 
steps  described  in  Sections  231-235,  namely: 

1.  Getting  attention. 

2.  Explaining  the  proposition. 

3.  Adapting  the  case  to  the  reader's  needs. 

4.  "Closing  the  deal." 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

244.  Getting  Attention  in  Second  and  Third  Letteis. 
In  the  second  letter  blanks  may  be  left  for  dates.  The  following 
forms  might  be  used  effectively: 

Dear  Sir: 

We  have  not  heard  from  the  letter  we  wrote  you  December  10.    You 
probably  have  not  got  around  to  it  yet.    We  who  hear  of  so  many  acci- 
dents know  the  danger  of  delay,  and  we  don't  want  misfortune  to  catch 
you  unprepared. 
Or: 

Since  writing  you  December  10  about  our  Complete  First  Aid  1 
ment,  we  have  cut  more  than  a  dozen  clippings  from  the  papers  recording 
fatal  accidents  through  misuse  of  drugs. 

The  third  letter  also  may  begin  in  some  such  manner.  It 
is  unwise  to  take  the  attitude  of  injury  because  your  reader 
has  not  replied  to  your  letters.  He  owes  you  nothing. 

Follow-up  letters  must  be  written  for  classes  of  people. 
There  are  two  main  divisions:  (a)  People  who  receive  many 
letters.  Form  letters  to  this  class  must  be  brief,  pointed,  and 
of  some  dignity,  (b)  People  who  receive  few  letters.  Letters 
in  this  case  may  be  made  longer  and  more  confidential. 


EXERCISE  224 

Plan  and  write  a  series  of  three  letters  to  business  and 
professional  men  intended  to  sell  the  medicine  cabinet  dis- 
cussed in  Section  243. 

EXERCISE  226 

Plan  and  write  a  circular  letter  intended  to  induce  grocery 
men  to  sell  apples  from  the  James  River  Apple  Growers' 
Association. 

245.  The  Collection  Letter.  Collection  has  become  a 
separate  business.  The  rates  of  collection  companies  are 
rather  high,  however,  and  it  is  better  if  possible  to  collect  one's 
debts  without  their  aid.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  firm  does 
not  have  a  collection  department  an  unpleasant  correspondence 
is  costly  in  time  and  spirit.  One  of  the  best  ways  to  be  success- 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  333 

i'ul  in  the  collection  business  is  to  prevent  the  necessity  of 
much  collecting. 

The  collection  letter  differs  from  other  business  letters  in 
that  it  often  may  with  advantage  be  impersonal.  What  has 
been  said  in  previous  pages  about  getting  in  close  touch  with 
your  correspondent  may  not  well  apply  to  the  first  letter  or 
two  asking  for  money.  It  is  better  to  make  the  letter  seem  to 
be  the  routine  thing  rather  than  a  direct  personal  request.  If, 
however,  nothing  results  from  the  distant  formal  notice,  it  is 
best  to  seek  to  awaken  the  debtor 's  sense  of  duty  by  personal 
letters.  It  is  wise  to  point  out  to  the  debtor  that  you  are  seek- 
ing to  free  him  from  an  unpleasant  situation.  Show  him  how 
much  happier  he  will  be  when  the  matter  is  settled.  In  other 
words,  "sell  him  peace  of  mind.  If  this  fails,  there  is  nothing 
left  to  do  but  threaten,  first  to  draw  upon  him  through  a  bant 
and,  if  the  draft  be  not  honored,  to  place  the  account  in  the 
hands  of  a  lawyer. 

The  following  is  a  good  form  of  monthly  statement: 

HART,     MAYER    &    COMPANY 

MADISON  AND  CLARK  STREETS 

CHICAGO 

July  1,  1917 

The  Markel  Tailoring  Co. 
341  W.  63  St. 
Chicago 


June  Acct. 


29 


00 


Advertising  material  may  be  inclosed  with  such  a  statement. 

Most  firms  send  a  second  plain  statement  or  even  a  third. 
Finally  it  becomes  necessary  to  write  a  letter. 

The  business  man  is  now  confronted  with  two  possible 
modes  of  procedure.  He  may  think  his  customer  is  only 
temporarily  delinquent  and  he  may  therefore  value  his  business. 
In  that  case  his  letter  should  inclose  advertising  and  sales  talk. 


334  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

If  the  business  and  previous  experience  promise  little,  the 
letter  may  be  firmer. 

The  following  is  a  letter  to  a  man  whose  business  is  valued: 

HART,    MAYER    &    COMPANY 

MADISON  AND  CLARK  STREETS 

CHICAGO 

Aug.  20,  1917 
The  M  irk<  1  Tailoring  Co. 
341  W.  63  Street 
Chicago 


You  have  doubtless  overlooked  your  small  account  of  $29.00  due 
us  July  1.  We  are  writing  now  to  recall  the  matter  to  your  mind.  May 
we  have  a  remittance  at  least  by  September  1? 

0  Did  you  get  our  announcement  of  the  purchase  of  the  Watson  bank- 
rupt stock?  Now  is  your  chance  to  share  with  us  in  the  best  bargain 
we've  made  for  many  moons. 

\\  c  hope  to  see  you  at  our  display  next  week. 

Yours  very  truly, 
Hart,  Mayer  A  Company, 

By  ............. 

If  the  customer's  business  is  not  valued,  the  following 
letter  might  be  written.  Circumstances  must  rule.  It  is 
often  possible  for  the  creditor  to  write  a  personal  letter  with 
good  results.  But  the  writer  should  always  maintain  his 
dignity.  Letters  of  the  "We  need  the  money"  type  do  the 
writer  harm,  for  in  writing  them  the  creditor  surrenders  his 
unassailable  dignity  almost  in  the  way  he  loses  caste  by  replying 
to  a  "mean"  letter  with  angry  words.  Justice,  not  pity,  should 
be  the  basis  of  demand. 

Gentlemen  : 

You  have  ignored  our  requests  for  payment  of  your  June  account 
amounting  to  $29.00.  We  must  ask  you  to  give  this  your  immediate 
attention,  as  the  time  you  have  taken  is  longer  than  we  care  to  extend 
our  terms. 

May  we  hear  from  you  by  return  mail?  Otherwise  we  shall  draw 
upon  you  through  the  First  National  Bank  of  Chicago. 

Yours  truly, 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  335 

Previous  requests  having  been  ignored,  a  final  letter  as 
follows  may  be  written: 

Gentlemen : 

You  have  failed  to  meet  our  request  for  payment  of  your  June  indebted- 
ness. "  The  First  National  Bank  of  Chicago  reports  that  you  have  refused 
to  honor  our  draft  of  August  25.  We  are  accordingly  placing  the  account 
in  the  hands  of  the  Thomas  Collection  Agency  of  Chicago. 

Yours  truly, 

Conditions  will  differ  and  no  series  of  collection  letters 
should  be  considered  as  models.  The  steps,  however,  are 
generally  as  follows : 

1.  Send  statements  promptly — perhaps  as  many  as  four. 
Inclose  advertising  material. 

2.  Write  a  letter  assuming  that  your  customer  has  forgotten 
the  account  or  that  your  statements  have  not  reached  him. 
Inclose  advertising  or  sales  talk. 

3.  Write   a   courteous   but   firm   request   for   the   money. 
Threaten  to  collect  through  a  bank.     Inclose  no  advertising 
matter. 

4.  Inform  the  customer  that  you  have  turned  the  account 
over  to  a  collection  agency.     In  general,  always  be  calm  and 
courteous. 

EXERCISE  226 

Write  a  series  of  three  letters  to  Davis  and  Dulton,  146 
Greenland  Ave.,  Columbus,  Ohio.  You  have  previously  sent 
them  three  statements  requesting  payment  of  $185  which  they 
have  now  owed  you  four  months. 

246.  The  Telegram.  Briefest  and  costliest  of  all  forms  of 
communication  is  the  telegram.  For  an  ordinary  message 
that  is  supposed  to  go  through  as  quickly  as  possible,  there 
is  a  standard  minimum  rate  for  ten  words  (or  less),  varying 
according  to  the  distance  or  difficulty  of  communication,  and  a 
fixed  charge  for  each  word  above  ten.  Besides  actual  words, 
detached  figures,  letters,  and  punctuation  marks  in  the  body 
of  the  telegram  are  counted,  together  with  any  such  following 
the  signature;  but  no  charge  is  made  for  the  address  and  the 


33(5  \  <  M  ATIONAL  ENGLISH 

signature.  Longer  messages  that  do  not  require  immediate 
transmission  may  be  sent  at  lower  than  ordinary  commercial 
rates  as  "night  letters"  or  "day  letters."  Newspapers  and 
other  large  users  of  telegraphic  service  are  given  special  rates. 
Most  people  try  to  keep  their  telegrams  within  tire  ten 
words  of  the  minimum  rate,  with  the  result  that  no  little  skill 
in  condensation  is  often  required.  The  problem  that  confn »i  it  -• 
you  in  writing  a  telegram  is  to  say  exactly  what  you  most  ne<*d 
to  say,  in  such  a  way  that  it  cannot  be  misunderstood,  yet  in 
the  most  compact  form.  Fragmentary  sentences,  consist  inn; 
mainly  of  nouns  or  pronouns  and  verbs,  are  the  rule  in  telegrams. 

EXAMPLE:    Lost  pocketbook.    Wire  hundred  Brent  House  Portland. 

Suppose  you  want  to  reduce  the  following  letter  to  a  tele- 
gram: 

Messrs.  Jones  and  Warner 
125  N.  Dearborn  St. 

Chicago 
Gentlemen: 

I  closed  the  Miller  deal  yesterday,  and  he  and  I  will  be  in  Chicago 
for  further  instructions  Tuesday  morning.  We  shall  probably  reach 
your  office  about  ten  o'clock.  Have  Mr.  Mason  there  if  possible. 

Yours  truly, 

Lawrence  Henning 

A  telegram  of  ten  words  may  read  thus: 

Jones  and  Warner 

125  N.  Dearborn  St. 

Chicago 
Closed  Miller  meet  us  with  Mason  your  office  ten  Tuesday. 

Henning 

247.  The  Special  Code.  Some  large  business  concerns 
work  out  a  system  of  words  to  take  the  place  of  phrases, 
clauses,  and  even  sentences  for  use  among  their  various 
branches.  Any  firm  can  devise  such  a  code  without  much 
difficulty.  One  hundred  actual  letters  ought  to  furnish  a 
pretty  good  list  of  phrases  which  are  sufficiently  common  to 
varrant  the  assignment  of  a  small  word  to  each  (a  code  word 


SPECIAL  BUSINESS  LETTERS  337 

is  counted  as  two  if  it  exceeds  five  letters).  The  great  tele- 
graph companies  have  a  complete  private  code  for  the  use  of 
their  patrons.  A  long  telegram  can,  by  the  use  of  a  good  code, 
be  reduced  to  a  few  disconnected  words. 

EXERCISE  227 

1.  Write  a  telegram  of  not  more  than  ten  words  (not  in- 
cluding address),  expressing  the  sense  of  the  following  letter: 

Mr.  A.  K.  Lemont 

Hope,  Arkansas 
Dear  Mr.  Lemont: 

Will  you  come  to  Chicago  by  Tuesday  if  possible?  Mr.  Jones  leaves 
us,  taking  charge  of  the  Cleveland  office.  We  want  you  to  remain  in 
Chicago  permanently. 

Yours  truly, 

Bell  Coil  Co. 

A.  M.  Roberts,  Mgr. 

2.  Reduce  the  following  letter  to  a  telegram  of  not  more 
then  ten  words: 

Dear  McMillan: 

We  cannot  find  a  copy  of  the  Warner  contract.  Do  you  know  where 
it  is?  Perhaps  you  have  it  with  you.  Will  you  wire  us  immediately? 

Yours  truly, 

A.  W.  Lawrence 

3.  Write  a  telegram  in  answer  to  Mr.  Lawrence's  inquiry. 
Tell  him  that  attorney  N.  M.  Wallen  took  the  contract  to 
improve  the  wording  if  possible.     You  are  McMillan. 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHAPTER  XXII 

1.  What  is  most  commendable  in  the  Lincoln  letter  on  page  296? 
On  page  297? 

2.  Discuss  the  appearance ,  of  a  letter  of  application.     What  is  the 
logical  order  of  qualifications  to  be  mentioned  in  such  a  letter? 

3.  How  should  an  applicant  act  when  applying  for  a  position?    Should 
he  stare  about  the  room?    Why? 

4.  How  can  an  applicant  best  avoid  appearing  ill  at  ease? 

5.  How  should  an  applicant  dress?  % 

6.  What  qualities  are  most  important  in  the  buying  letter? 


338  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

7.  What  is  the  best  form  for  the  buying  letter? 

8.  What  points  are  to  be  remembered  in  acknowledging  an  order? 

9.  What  are  the  best  ways  of  transmitting  money? 

10.  What  two  methods  are  common  in  replying  to  the  "mean"  letter? 

1 1 .  What  art  the  natural  divisions  of  the  sales  1< ' 

l  _.  What  should  be  the  relation  of  the  first  sentence  to  the  rest  of  the 
letter? 

l-i.  Why  is  it  generally  unwise  to  begin  a  letter  wit!.  :i  question? 

14.  What  is  the  advantage  of  making  a  good  first  impression? 

15.  What  are  the  qualities  of  a  good  description? 

16.  What  is  meant  by  putting  you  into  a  tetter? 

17.  Why  is  "closing  the  deal"  so  very  important  a  part  of  the  letter? 

18.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  form  letter  and  the  circular 
letter? 

19.  Should  follow-up  i< -tiers  be  planned  in  a  aeries?   Why? 

20.  What  is  a  telegraphic  code? 


CHAPTER  XXII  I 

ADVERTISING 

248.  The  Growth  of  Advertising.  Advertising  is  writing  a 
letter  to  everybody.  After  all  everybody  doesn't  differ  much 
from  anybody.  In  fact,  everybody  is  more  definite.  We  know 
more  about  the  way  people  in  general  will  act  than  we  do  about 
the  course  an  individual  will  take.  To  that  extent  advertise- 
ment writing  is  easier  than  individual  letter  writing.  In  spite 
of  this,  experts  tell  us  that  almost  half  of  the  advertising  now 
done  is  a  waste  of  money.  This  waste  is  very  great,  for  the 
estimate  of  the  cost  of  advertising  in  the  United  States  for  one 
year  is  above  a  half  billion  dollars. 

Advertising  is  a  young  business.  For  this  reason  only  a 
few  advertisers  know  very  much  about  the  laws  of  appeal  to 
the  masses.  In  the  period  preceding  the  Civil  War  there  was 
a  feeling  on  the  part  of  many  merchants  that  advertising  was 
an  unfair  way  of  treating  a  competitor.  Nevertheless  some 
competitors  advertised,  with  the  result  that  others  had  to  do 
the  same  thing. 

At  first  advertising  was  more  or  less  disreputable.  There 
were  impossible  promises  to  lure  the  greedy,  half  truths  or  even 
lies  to  attract  the  credulous,  and  a  general  tendency  to  employ 
noise,  much  as  does  the  "barker"  at  a  street  fair.  Barnum  is 
said  to  have  advertised  a  "horse  with  its  head  where  its  tail 
ought  to  be"  and  collected  a  dime  for  the  privilege  of  seeing  a 
horse  turned  around  in  his  stall.  Ignorant  people  who,  in  the 
hope  of  seeing  something  for  nothing,  followed  the  sign,  "This 
way  to  the  Exit.  Free,"  found  themselves  outside  the  tent  and 
had  to  pay  another  entrance  fee.  Fortunately  advertising  has 
now  pretty  generally  developed  beyond  dishonesty  asnd  trickery. 

The  first  good  ten-cent  magazine  appeared  in  1893.  It  was 
followed  by  hundreds  of  others  of  the  wholesome  type.  People 

339  % 


940  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

began  to  read  extensively,  and  with  a  great  magazine  circulation 
advertising  took  on  its  present  gigantic  proportions. 

There  is  a  feeling  among  some  thinking  people  that  adver- 
t  i -ing  is  a  waste  of  money — "a  tax  on  production.1'  Doubtless 
it  is  a  tax — certainly  the  public  has  to  pay.  But  these  critics 
often  fail  to  realize  the  tremendous  educational  value  of  adver- 
tiMiig.  It  is  said  that  a  friend  sent  Mr.  Kipling  in  India 
a  bundle  of  magazines  with  the  advertising  pages  torn  off. 
Mr.  Kipling  is  said  to  have  replied,  'The  next  time  you  send 
magazines  please  send  the  advertising  pages  too;  I  can  write 
stories  myself." 

In  the  current  number  of  a  monthly  magazine  information 
of  the  following  kinds  is  found  in  the  advertising: 

Comparison  of  the  spinning  wheel  and  the  automobile — history  of 

each. 

Explanation  of  indirect  lighting  (office  and  home). 
Pictures  showing  a  building  saved  by  asbestos  shingles. 
Diagrams  and  pictures  illustrating  concrete  road  building. 
A  picture  of  a  reception  hall  artistically  furnished.     One  can  learn 

much  from  even  a  small  picture. 
Brief  explanation  of  color  photography. 
Interesting  oriental  rug  designs. 

What  may  be  seen  about  a  hotel  near  Fortress  Monroe. 
Explanation  of  how  to  get  money  while  abroad. 
Characteristics  of  cypress  wood. 
An  attractive  home  costing  little. 
How  to  cauterize  a  wound. 
A  new  type  of  electric  light. 
Extent  of  the  Bell  telephone  system. 
Liszt — his  life.    Phonograph  records  of  his  work. 
Many  interesting  and  instructive  pictures. 

All  of  this  information  is  valuable — more  so  than  much 
that  is  obtained  in  the  schools,  because  it  is  "up  to  the  minute." 
Advertising  is  the  great  national  university  which  instructs 
and  unitizes  people  from  Maine  to  California. 

Advertising  instructs  in  a  more  vital  way.  Often  a  man 
finds  through  an  advertisement  just  what  he  needs  to  complete 
his  comfort — something  for  which  he  would  gladly  have  paid 


ADVERTISING  341 

ten  times  its  value.  Almost  anyone,  by  thinking  a  minute,  can 
recall  advertisements  which  he  remembers  with  considerable 
gratefulness.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  still  some  evil  adver- 
tising. Some  discussion  of  this  phase  of  the  subject  will 
follow  (Sections  258  and  259). 

EXERCISE  228 

Bring  to  class  and  read  three  current  advertisements  from 
which  you  have  gained  real  information.  Find  one  advertise- 
ment which  you  think  has  had  the  effect  of  improving  your 
taste  for  the  artistic. 

249.  Types    of   Advertisements.     There    are    two    general 
types  of  advertisements — • 

(a)  The  suggestive  display. 

(b)  The  explanatory  or  "reason  why"  copy. 

While  we  may  find  distinct  examples  of  these  types,  most 
advertisements  make  use  of  characteristics  of  both. 

The  suggestive  display  advertisement  consists  of  an  "atten- 
tion compeller"  only.  Attention  is  often  secured  by  a  picture 
and  the  name  of  the  product  or  some  phrase  associated  with  it. 
A  certain  biscuit  company  advertises  by  a  picture  of  three  or 
four  schoolbooks  and  a  carton  of  biscuits  strapped  together, 
bearing  the  name  of  the  product  only.  A  breakfast  food  com- 
pany displays  a  picture  of  a  smiling  negro  chef  always  in  some 
relation  to  the  food,  the  name  of  the  product  being  practically 
the  only  wording  employed. 

The  second  or  "reason  why"  type  will  be  considered  in  this 
book  at  some  length,  because  it  involves  the  writing  of  con- 
vincing English.  It  seeks  to  create  a  sale  for  a  product  through 
arousing  a  desire  by  means  of  explanation  and  adaptation  to 
the  needs  of  the  reader. 

250.  General    Observations    on    Writing    Advertisements. 
This  chapter  can  concern  itself  only  with  writing  the  adver- 
tisement, leaving  questions  of  media  (magazines,  newspapers, 
etc.),  testing  of  results,  etc.,  to  more  extended  studies.     There 
are  several  general  observations  which  affect  the  making  of 
"copy." 


342  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

(a)  The  advertiser  must  not  talk  to  himself — he  must 
remember  that  the  people's,  not  his,  interests  are  uppermost. 

(b)  He  must  remember  that  the  people  are  not  highly 
educated,  that  they  know  few  big  words,  or  technical  won ; 
his  business. 

(c)  He  should  know  that  in  t  heir  reading  people  are  seeking, 
primarily,  entertainment. 

(d)  He  must  not  forget  that  people  are,  as  a  mass,  pitiless 
in  criticism  of  what  they  read,  and  that  only  studied  appeal 
will  reach  them. 

(e)  He  must,  in  general,  picture  or  describe  only  pleasant 
things.    Most  readers  of  magazines  are  trying  to  forget  the 
troubles  of  the  day,  and  they  will  turn  away  from  a  life  insurance 
advertisement  picturing  a  hearse,  with  a  shudder  which  does 
little  good  to*the  advertiser.    It  would,  however,  be  good 
a  1\<  rising  to  picture  the  wife  and  children  in  comfort  due  to 
an  insurance  policy. 

(f)  Advertisers  must  not  forget  the  women.    In  general 
they   do   more  than  half  of  the  buying,  and  since  they  are 
occupied    usually    with   home-making,    the  task  of  adapting 
advertisements  to  them  is  not  difficult. 

(g)  The  writer  must  beware  of  accidental  bad  impressions. 
A  lunch  room  advertises,  "Ernie's — always  crowded/'    This 

h  phrase  is  intended  to  give  an  impression  of  popularity, 
but  really  gives  an  unpleasant  sense  of  lack  of  privacy. 

(h)  Advertisements  should  not  be  in  fine  print.  Eyesight 
generally  begins  to  fail  about  the  time  a  man  reaches  his  greatest 
buying  power.  You  must  not  allow  the  reader  to  quit  reading 
because  it  is  difficult  to  continue. 

251.  Construction  of  an  Advertisement.  The  general  laws 
of  advertisement  writing  are  very  similar  to  those  governing 
the  selling  letter;  many  things  said  in  Sections  232-239  may  be 
reviewed  to  advantage  hero  The  chief  steps  in  making 
a  good  advertisement  are: 

1.  Catching  the  reader's  attention  and  interesting  him  til! 
you  can  get  in  your  talk. 


ADVERTISING  343 

2.  Explaining  the  proposition  or  article. 

3.  Making  it  easy  to  order. 

In  general  the  advertisement  is  more  condensed  than  the 
letter.  Advertising  is  expensive  and,  besides,  a  reader  will  go 
more  deeply  into  a  letter  than  into  an  advertisement,  because 
the  letter  is  addressed  to  him  personally.  Often  one  or  more 
of  the  steps  is  omitted  in  an  advertisement.  The  question  the 
writer  must  face  is,  "How  would  my  average  reader  be  im- 
pressed by  this  kind  of  advertisement?'7 

252.  Methods   of   Catching   Attention.     By   far   the   most 
effective  type  of  advertisement  employs  a  picture  or  pictures. 
Sometimes,  as  has  been  noted  (Section  249),  the  picture  alone 
constitutes  the  advertisement,  but  more  often  it  is  accompanied 
by   explanatory   matter.     Sometimes   the   picture   has   little 
or  no  relation  to  the  subject,  although  in  general  this  is  bad 
advertising.    It  is  but  another  form  of  trick  which  the  American 
reader  has,  from  the  past,  learned  to  beware  of.     A  current 
advertisement  for  breakfast  food  is  headed  "Tire  troubles," 
and  pictures  a  man  and  woman  bending  over  a  punctured  tire.  t 
The  automobile  enthusiast  who  begins  reading  is  disgusted 
because    he    finds    himself    tricked.     The    housewife    doesn't 
bother  about  automobile  tires,  hence  fails  to  see  the  breakfast 
food  advertisement. 

Another  advertisement  shouts  above  a  picture  of  "Uncle 
Sam,"  "UNCLE  SAM  INSISTS.  Install  ventilation  when 
you  build."  Now  there  is  no  United  States  law  on  ventilation 
and  there  probably  never  will  be  one.  That  field  belongs  to 
the  state.  There  is  here  the  mischievous  principle  of  untruth. 
"If  the  heading  is  false,"  thinks  the  reader,  "how  can  I 
trust  any  of  the  rest?" 

253.  The  Use  of  Personal  Appeal.     Often  the  advertiser 
wishes  to  appeal  to  a  certain  class  of  people.     He  must  under- 
stand their  lives  and  their  ambitions;  he  can  then  get  their 
attention  by  playing  upon  their  hopes  and  desires.     Directed 
to  a  class,  personal  appeal  is  one  of  the  most  effective  openings 
employed  in  advertisements. 


:n-i  VOCATIONAL  ENcusn 

Correspondence  schools  make  a  specialty  of  appealing  to 
im-n  who  are  anxious  to  get  above  their  present   p«»^it  inn- 
ambitious  young  men  generally.    One  such  school  uses  the  fol- 
lowing (usually  associated  with  a  picture) : 

Don't  Envy  Successful  Men;  Be  One. 
Another  school  asks: 
Are  You  Boss  or  Bossed? 

One  savings  bank,  in  an  appeal  to  thinking  men  to  lay  some- 
thing by,  begins: 

•    Saving  Is  a  Discipline.    It  Is  More  Than  That — 
It  Is  the  Greatest  Reward  of  Discipline. 

/ 
Another  savings  bank  asks  on  a  street-car  placard : 

As  Your  Income  Increases,,  Which  Grows  with  It — Your  Saving  or 
Your  Spending? 

254.  The  Appeal  by  Interesting  Statement.  Another  type 
of  advertisement  bears  an  astonishing  fact  or  a  curt  philo- 
sophical statement  in  the  headline.  When  well  done  this 
makes  a  powerful  appeal.  This  form  of  call  is  vastly  superior 
to  the  "Ours  is  the  best"  type. 

Compare  the  force  of  these  two  extracts  from  advertisements 
in  current  magazines.  Which  is  better? 

The  Jenkins  tires  are  best,—  40  Million  Miles  a  Day!  1600 
made  of  fresh  rubber — used  on  the  times  around  the  world  daily! 
best  grade  machines.  What's  the  answer?  Service. 

It  is  not,  however,  necessary  that  the  advertisement 
contain  startling  information.  The  following  is  interesting: 

Safe  for  everybody  but  the  burglar.  Once  in  every  man's  life  there 
comes  a  time  when  he  needs  a  pistol. 

A  filing  cabinet  company  advertises: 

FILING  THAT  PUTS  SPEED  INTO  FINDING. 
Filing  Labor  Costs  Ten  to  Twenty  Times  As  Much  As  Filing  Equip- 
ment. 


ADVERTISING  345 

Don't  forget  your  product.  No  "attention  compeller" 
should  proceed  far  without  definite  mention  of  the  product. 
The  greatest  value  of  advertising  consists  in  making  the  name 
of  your  product  a  kind  of  "household  word." 


EXERCISE  229 

Begin  an  advertisement  to  one  of  the  classes  in  Column  B. 
Make  choice  of  any  business  from  Column  A. 

A  B 

Breakfast  food  manufacturer  Society  woman 

Automobile  manufacturer  School  teacher 

Photographic  equipment  jobber  Chauffeur 

Real  estate  salesman  Grocery  clerk 

Correspondence  school  Student 

Watch  and  clock  manufacturer  .  Music  teacher 

Diamond  merchant  Housekeeper 

Publishing  company  Reporter 

Perfume  makers  Lawyer 

255.  The     Transition    from    Heading    to    Product.     The 

advertiser  must  not  let  his  "prospect"  lose  interest  after  reading 
the  heading  or  looking  at  the  picture.  Some  device  must  be 
employed — information  given,  perhaps,  or  passing  interest 
aroused  to  lead  the  reader  on.  A  story  is  sometimes  effectively 
used  in  this  place.  The  following  is  from  the  advertisement  of 
an  insurance  company  (below  an  interesting  old  woodcut  of  a 
spinning  wheel) : 

Side  by  side  with  the  first  advertisement  of  the Fire  Insurance 

Company,  printed  in  the  Hartford  Courant  in  1810,  Donald  McAulay, 
Turner,  announced  that  he  "made  and  repaired  all  kinds  of  spinning 
wheels." 

Old  Donald  would  look  in  vain  through  the  pages  of  this  magazine 
for  advertisements  of  spinning  wheels,  and  we  can  imagine  his  amazement 
at  phonograph,  telephone,  or  motor  car.  But  one  familiar  friend  he 

would  find — the  announcement  of  the ,  as  ready  today  to  give 

protection  from  all  the  risks  of  a  motor  car  as  it  was  to  insure  a  spinning 
wheel  in  1810. 


:un  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

An  advertisement  in  a  current  magazine  begins: 
"THINK  BKY<  >M>  YOUR  JOB  " 

'There  is  not  a  man  in  power  at  the  Bethlehem  Steel 
today,"  says  Charles  M.  Schwab,  in  the  American  Magazine,  "who 
did  not  begin  at  the  bottom  and  work  his  way  up.  These  leaders 
rose  from  the  ranks.  They  won  out  by  using  their  normal  brains  to 
think  beyond  their  manifest  daily  duty. 

"Eight  years  ago    was  switching  engines.     II  is 

ability  to  out-think  his  job,  coupled  with  his  sterling  integrity,  lifted 
him  to  the  presidency  of  our  corporation.  Last  year  he  earned  more 
than  a  million  dollars.'1 

266.  Description  and  Application.     Instead  of  the  common- 
place in  description,  which  merely  enumerates  the  good  qualit  ies 
of  an  article,  an  automobile  firm  advertises  beneath  an  attract  i  \  < 
picture: 

When  snow  is  flying  and  all  outdoors  is  wrapped  in  1.1.  ..k  January's 

somber  mantle,  your    coupe" — warm  and  cozy — takes  you  to 

the  theater,  tlnMlimuT  party,  or  the  evening  reception  in  t lie  same  comfort 
you  have  just  left  in  your  living  room.  Snug  in  this  fine  new  enclosed 
car — richly  upholstered  and  beautifully  finished — you  are  independent 
of  weather,  of  street  conditions,  of  chauffeur  or  escort.  By  day  or  night, 
alone  or  accompanied,  you  go  and  come  safely,  surely,  silently. 

This  description  carries  conviction.  It  creates  a  desire. 
It  speaks  of  elegance,  warmth,  and%silence,  not  directly,  but  as 
the  setting  of  a  cozy  picture. 

One  can  almost  feel  the  balmy  freshness  of  a  good  shampoo 
after  reading  the  following.  Instead  of  a  flat  statement  that 

soap  is  good  for  the  hair  and  scalp  and  is  cleansing, 

we  are  given  a  description  of  luxurious  feeling. 

Soap  is  good  for  the  scalp  because  it  cleans,  soothes,  heals — 

and  healthy  scalps  encourage  healthy,  lustrous  hair.  The  mere  operation 
of  applying  its  fragrant,  pine-laden  lather  to  one's  hair  is  beneficial.  The 
pressing,  the  kneading,  and  all  the  other  processes  that  constitute  what 
is  known  as  shampooing — all  help.  And  when  the  lather  is  rinsed  out  and 
the  hair  is  once  more  dry,  there  remains  a  feeling,  not  only  of  absolute 
cleanliness,  but  of  delightful  exhilaration. 


ADVERTISING  347 

257.  Making  It  Easy  to  Order.     Orders  are  the  life-blood 
of  a  business.     There  is  nothing  but  loss  in  catching  a  reader's 
attention,  convincing  him  of  the  desirability  of  an  article,  and 
failing  to  get  his  order.     Ordering  must  be  made  easy.     Most 
advertisers  use  a  coupon  or  form  which  needs  only  the  filling 
in  of  a  name  and  address.     The  following  from  Starch's  Adver- 
tising explains  one  such  plan: 

The  Pedlar  People,  Ltd.,  of  Oshawa,  Ontario,  manufacturers  of 
architectural  sheet-metal  building  material,  are  using  a  novel  coupon  in 
their  farm-paper  advertising,  which  they  claim  has  practically  doubled 
the  inquiries.  Briefly,  the  coupon  includes  a  diagram  of  the  two  types 
of  barns  common  in  Canada,  with  dimension  lines,  so  that  the  farmer  can 
fill  in  the  dimensions  and  get  an  estimate  from  the  manufacturer  as  to 
the  cost  of  sheathing  his  barn  with  steel  shingles. 

In  explaining  the  benefits  of  the  coupon,  A.  T.  Enlow,  advertising 
manager  of  the  concern,  says:  "Our  long  experience  with  the  farmer 
has  convinced  us  that  he  will  read  anything  half-way  interesting,  but  he 
will  not  go  to  a  great  deal  of  trouble  writing  letters.  No  doubt  this  is 
largely  due  to  the  fact  that  his  stationery  is  of  an  uncertain  quality,  the 
ink  dried  up,  and  the  pen  rusted.  We  figure  that  by  making  it  easy  for 
him  to  write  in  and  find  out  what  it  would  cost  to  steel  shingle  his  barn, 
we  would  save  him  a  lot  of  figuring  and  at  the  same  time  the  association 
of  ideas  would  bring  results.  As  a  result  we  find  we  are  getting  more 
than  twice  the  number  of  inquiries  from  the  same  space  as  we  did  before 
we  adopted  this  diagram  idea." 

A  canvass  of  twenty-five  advertisements  in  a  modern 
magazine  gives  the  following  methods  of  inducing  a  prospective 
customer  to  act: 

Twelve  use  coupons  written  in  letter  form  requiring  only  the  name 
and  address  of  the  customer. 

Five  offer  a  Catalog,  booklet,  or  calendar. 
Four  instruct  the  buyer  to  "ask  your  dealer. " 
Three  urge  a  sample  order. 
One  offers  to  send  a  sample  free. 

258.  Type  of  Advertisements.     It  would  be  impossible  to 
catalog  all  the  various  forms  and  devices  employed  to  sell  goods. 


348  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

There  are,  however,  several  kinds  so  often  met  that  it  seems 
profitable  to  mention  them. 

A.  The  Prestige  Advertisement.    This  form  has  little  value 
except  to  great  corporations  or  old  businesses.     It  consists  of 
a  display  of  little  more  than  the  name  or  trade-mark  of  the 
advertiser  and  its  effectiveness  depends  entirely  upon  the 
general  knowledge  of  the  public.    Tiffany  and  Company  of 
New  York  generally  run  only  the  firm  name  and  "Silver* -u 

In  small  advertisements  we  frequently  meet  the  "card"  type; 
e.  g.,  "J.  J.  Weber,  Coal  and  Wood."  While  this  type  of  sinall 
advertisement  serves  its  purpose  fairly  well,  it  is  probably  true 
that  a  little  thought  would  enable  the  writer  to  do  much  better. 
At  best  the  announcement  is  only  a  passive  kind  of  reminder. 
One  enterprising  coal  man  advertises,  "\\  Vll  make  it  hot  for 
you,  and  we'll  deliver  it  to  you,  too — the  best  coal  we  can  buy 
in  all  Pennsylvania."  While  this  has  in  it  a  bit  of  a  trick,  the 
effect  is  not  bad  because  the  reader  knows  when  he  begins  that 
it  will  "turn  into"  something 

Some  trade-marks  have  become  so  well  known  that  they 
are  rated  as  worth  many  thousands  of  dollars  to  the  business. 
Among  them  are  "His  Master's  Voice,"  the  blue  bell  of  the  Bell 
Telephone  Company,  the  signature  of  Thomas  A.  Edison,  the 
Gold  Du^t  Twins,  and  Uneeda  Biscuit.  The  owners  of  these 
well  known  designs  can  advertise  effectively  by  the  mere  display 
of  the  trade-mark.  But  one  has  only  to  look  through  any 
magazine  to  find  dozens  of  trade-marks  he  doesn't  remember 
having  seen  before  and  would  not  recognize  if  he  saw  again, 
thus  showing  the  futility  of  any  but  the  great  corporations' 
using  this  method  of  advertising. 

B.  The  Jingle  Type.    The  Spotless  Town  advertisements 
illustrate  this  sort.    The  advertiser  seeks  to  associate  some 
nursery  rhyme  or  light  verse  with  his  product.     The  type  is  not 
practical  for  the  small  advertiser  because  its  value  depends  on 
continued  and  widespread  publicity. 

C.  The   Trick  Advertisement.       Advertisements    are    fast 
becoming  honest — they  tell  the  truth  about  the  goods.     The 


ADVERTISING  349 

old  dishonest  forms  of  the  following  kind,  once  common,  have 
gone  forever: 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

in  a  speech  once  said  that  many  people  are  literally 

ASSASSINATED 

by  failure  to  care  for  their  health-     Use -  Pills. etc.,  etc. 

Such  tricks  to  secure  attention  are  practically  sure  to  react 
against  the  advertiser. 

D.  The  Humorous  Trick  Advertisement.  There  is  a  type 
of  trick  advertisement  which  is  fairly  effective  because  it  is 
recognized  at  a  glance  as  a  trick.  The  chief  fault  is  lack  of 
dignity.  "Does  your  top  leak?"  heads  an  effective  advertise- 
ment of  an  automobile  top  dressing.  "Did  you  ever  have  a  fit?" 
attracts  a  good  deal  of  attention  to  a  tailor's  window.  The 
good-natured  trick  is  accepted  good-naturedly,  but  the  studied 
attempt  to  lead  a  reader  into  an  advertisement  by  interest 
other  than  that  which  rightfully  belongs  to  the  subject  is 
recognized  as  a  form  of  dishonesty. 

259.  The  Overdrawn  Advertisement.  Although  there  are 
people  in  the  world  who  will  believe  anything  in  print,  most 
people  are  suspicious  of  too  great  promises  or  other  over-state- 
ment. Next  to  the  trick  advertisement,  the  over-stated  adver- 
tisement is  poorest.  Over-statement  may  take  the  form  of  too 
great  promises;  e.  g.,  "Why  be  content  with  6%  when  you  can 
make  30%,"  or  "It  will  be  the  happiest  day  of  your  life  when  you 
put  on  Tearproof  Hose."  Sometimes  it  is  found  in  extravagant 
description  as  in  the  advertisement  of  oleomargarine,  "sweet 
as  a  lily  and  pure  as  the  rain-washed  buttercup."  The  hopes 
of  thousands  of  sufferers  are  raised  temporarily  by  statements 
like  the  following:  "We  positively  guarantee  to  cure  con- 
sumption." Any  advertising  value  which  such  a  statement 
has  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  holds  out  a  straw  to  the  grasp  of 
a  sinking  man.  Advertisements  in  earlier  days  too  often  made 
extravagant  claims.  At  one  time  fully  half  of  them  were  dis- 
honest. 


350  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Fortunately  we  are  coming  into  a  saner  phase.  Most  maga- 
zines and  newspapers  now  refuse  to  publish  advertisements 
which  they  know  to  be  false.  Recently  one  of  the  largest 
weeklies  in  America  refused  a  full-page  advertiser™  nt  from  an 
automobile  company  on  the  ground  that  the  advertisement 
asserted  impossible  conditions.  The  automobile  company 
insisted  that  the  magazine  investigate.  Accordingly  a  jury  of 
engineers  was  sent  to  the  factory.  They  reported  the  asser- 
tions to  be  justified,  and  the  advertisement  was  accepted. 

EXERCISE  23O 

Bring  to  class  one  example  of  each  of  the  following  adver- 
tising types: 

1.  A  description  that  creates  a  desire. 

2.  An  advertisement  depicting  misfortune  or  suffering.  ' 

3.  An  advertisement  with  the  story  type  of  beginning. 

4.  An  advertisement  addressed  to  ambitious  men. 

5.  An  advertisement  intended  for  well-to-do  men. 

EXERCISE  231 

Bring  to  class  examples  of  the  following  types  of  adver- 
tisement: 

1.  The  trick  advertisement — bad  typel 

2.  The  good-natured  trick. 

3.  The  astounding  fact  advertisement. 

4.  A  probably  dishonest  advertisement. 

5.  The  jingle  type. 

6.  Any  advertisement  you  consider  unusually  good. 

EXERCISE  232 

Cut  from  some  newspaper  or  magazine  any  picture  whicn 
will  illustrate  an  advertisement  you  have  in  mind.  Paste  it 
upon  a  sheet  of  paper  and  write  the  advertisement.  Exchange 
with  other  members  of  the  class  and  vote  by  ballot  for  the  best. 
Discuss  with  the  teacher  the  three  receiving  the  most  votes. 


APPENDIX  A 
GLOSSARY  OF  GRAMMATICAL  TERMS      * 

Absolute  Nominative.  The  nominative  case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  used 
with  a  participle  in  an  independent  phrase. 

EXAMPLE  :    The  wind  dying  down,  we  started. 

Abstract  Noun.  The  name  of  a  quality  or  characteristic;  or  any  noun  that 
is  not  the  name  of  some  concrete  person  or  thing. 

EXAMPLES:     goodness,  evil,  anger,  beauty. 

Accusative  Case.    See  Case. 
Accusative-Dative  Case.     See  Case. 

Active  Voice.  The  forms  of  a  verb  representing  the  subject  as  the  doer  of 
an  action. 

EXAMPLE  :     The  fire  burns  the  forest. 

Address,  Nominative  of.  A  noun  or  pronoun  representing  a  person  or 
thing  directly  addressed.  See  Case. 

EXAMPLE  :    John,  come  here. 

Adjective.     A  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 
Adjective  Clause.     A  clause  used  to  modify  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

EXAMPLE  :     The  man  whom  you  saw  is  my  brother. 
Adjective  Phrase.    A  phrase  used  to  modify  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

EXAMPLE:     The  man  with  the  brown  hat  is  my  brother. 

Adjunct  Accusative.  An  additional  object  used  with  a  direct  object  after 
verbs  of  calling,  choosing,  making,  naming,  and  some  other  verbs  of 
similar  meaning.  An  adjective,  as  well  as  a  substantive,  may*  be  in 
this  construction  (example  3). 

EXAMPLES:     1.  Ye  call  me  chief. 

2.  We  chose  Mr.  Wilson  President. 

3.  The  boys  painted  the  fence  brown. 

This  construction  is  also  sometimes  called  the  objective  complement. 
Adverb.     A  word  that  modifies  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb. 

Adverbs  may  represent  degree,  manner,  place,  time;  they  may  affirm  or 

deny  or  indicate  uncertainty.     See  Expletives,  Interrogative  Adverb, 

Numerals,  Relative  Adverb. 
Adverbial  Accusative  (Objective).    A  noun  used  adverbially,  without  a 

preposition. 

EXAMPLE  :    He  walked  a  mile. 

351 


352  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Adverbial  Clause.    A  clause  used  as  an  adverb. 

EXAMPLE:    I  came  as  toon  as  I  could. 
Adverbial  Phrase.    A  phrase  used  aa  an  adverb. 

EXAMPLE  :    I  came  in  five  minutes. 

Agreement  The  correspondence  that  should  exist  in  such  matters  as 
number,  gender,  etc.,  between  verbs  and  their  subjects,  pronouns  and 
their  antecedents,  etc.  See  Sections  52-54,  58-60. 

Antecedent  The  word  or  words  to  which  a  pronoun  (or  pronominal 
adjective)  refers. 

EXAMPLE:    John  quit  because  he  was  cold. 

Apostrophe.  A  comma-like  mark  used  above  the  line  to  indicate  (a) 
possession,  (b)  omission. 

EXAMPLES:    (a)  John's,  (b)  isn't. 

Appositive.  A  substantive  placed  beside  another  substantive  for  the 
purpose  of  explaining  it,  and  denoting  the  same  person,  place,  or  thing. 

EXAMPLE:    Franklin,  the  philosopher,  was  born  in  Boston. 

Articles.  The  adjectives  the,  a,  and  an.  The  is  called  definite;  a  and  on 
indefinite.  A  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  consonants;  an  before 
words  beginning  with  vowels  or  vowel  sounds. 

Auxiliary  Verb.  A  helping  verb  used  with  the  main  verb  in  forming  a 
verb  phrase.  ' 

The  principal  auxiliary  verbs  are: 
be — used  in  making  passive  and  progressive  forms. 
have — used  in  male  ing  the  perfect  tenses. 
do  (did) — used  in  the  emphatic  forms  (see  Section  30). 
shall  and  will — used  in  future  and  future  perfect  tenses  and  to  express 

determination  or  volition. 

may,  might — used  to  express  permission  or  possibility, 
can,  could — used  to  express  ability  or  power. 
should — used  in  conclusions  of  conditions,  and  to  express  duty  or 

obligation. 

would — used  in  conclusions  of  conditions,  and  to  express  determina- 
tion or  customary  action. 
ought — used  to  express  duty  or  obligation. 
must — used  to  express  necessity. 
let — used  in  expressing  a  wish. 

Case.  The  inflection  of  nouns  and  pronouns  to  indicate  construction  in 
the  sentence.  English  nouns  do  not  vary  in  case-form  except  to  show 
possession  (see  Section  21).  Most  of  the  personal  pronouns  and  the 


APPENDIX  353 

pronoun  who,  however,  in  addition  to  possessive  forms,  have  different 
forms  for  the  nominative  and  for  the  accusative-dative  (objective)  case 
(see  Section  61). 

EXAMPLE:     He  hit  him  with  his  hand. 

Case-uses  are  more  important  than  case-forms;  for  both  nouns  and 
pronouns  the  principal  case-uses  are  as  follows : 

Nominative:  as  subject,  nominative  of  address,  nominative  of 
exclamation,  absolute  nominative,  predicate  nominative  (predicate 
noun  or  pronoun). 

Accusative:     as   direct   object,    secondary   object,    retained   object, 
adjunct  accusative,  subject  or  predicate  of  infinitive,  adverbial 
accusative,  with  a  preposition. 
Dative:    as  indirect  object. 
Genitive :    of  possession  and  of  connection. 

Clause.  Any  group  of  words  having  a  subject  and  a  predicate.  If  the 
clause  "makes  sense"  standing  alone,  it  is  called  independent,  or  a 
principal  clause  (example  a).  If  it  is  incomplete  except  when  taken 
with  another  clause,  it  is  dependent  or  subordinate  (example  b). 

EXAMPLES:     (a)   The  snow  fell  steadily  while  we  were  there, 
(b)  The  sight  which  he  saw  astonished  him. 

Collective  Noun.  A  noun  singular  in  form,  which  is  the  name  of  a  group 
or  collection  of  persons  or  things. 

EXAMPLE  s :    herd ,    crew . 

Common  Case.    The  common  forms  of  a  noun  as  distinguished  from  its 

possessive  forms  (singular  and  plural).     The  common  case  is  used  for 

all  case-uses  except  the  genitive. 
Common  Gender.    See  Gender. 
Common  Noun.    Any  noun  that  is  not  the  individual  name  of  some 

person,  place,  or  thing. 
Comparative  Degree.    The  second  of  the  three  forms  of  an  adjective  or 

an  adverb  denoting  degrees  of  quality  or  quantity. 

EXAMPLES:    long  (positive  degree) 

longer  (comparative  degree) 
longest  (superlative  degree) 
Comparison,     The  changes  in  the  form  of  an  adjective  or  an  adverb  to 

denote  degree.     See  Comparative  Degree. 

Complement.     A  word  used  to  complete  some  construction  in  the  predicate. 
Object  Complement.    See  Object,  Direct. 
Objective  Complement.     See  Adjunct  Accusative. 
Subjunctive  Complement.     See  Predicate  Nominative  and  Predicate 
Adjective. 


354  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Complete  Predicate.  The  whole  predicate  part  of  a  sentence  or  a  clause, 
comprising  the  predicate  verb  and  all  complements  and  modifiers  in 
the  predicate. 

EXAMPLE:    He  gave  me  a  book  mth  a  torn  cover. 

The  predicate  verb  in  this  example  is  gave,  only. 

Complete  Subject  The  subject  and  all  its  modifiers;  distinguished  from 
the  principal  word  of  the  subject,  or  the  subject  substantiv* 

EXAMPLE:     The  tall  boy  in  the  back  seat  is  my  broth*  r 

The  subject  substantive  in  this  example  is  boy,  alone. 
Complete  Verb.    An  intransitive  verb  that  does  not  require  a  predicate 
noun  or  pronoun,  or  a  predicate  adjective,  to  complete  its  meaning. 

EXAMPLE:    Ends  fly. 

Complex  Sentence.  A  sentence  containing  a  principal  clause  and  one  or 
more  subordinate  clauses. 

EXAMPLE:    The  boy  who  has  the  highest  mark  may  stand. 

Complex-Compound  Sentence.  A  compound  sentence  in  which  one  or 
more  of  the  parts  contains  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses. 

EXAMPLE:    The  boy  who  has  the  highest  mark  may  stand,  and  I  v.  ill 
give  him  a  prize. 

Compound  Adjective.  An  adjective  made  up  of  two  or  more  words,  \\  it  h 
or  without  a  hyphen. 

EXAMPLES:    everyday  English,  a  two-seated  vehicle. 

Compound  Noun.  A  noun  made  up  of  two  or  more  words,  with  or  with- 
out a  hyphen. 

EXAMPLES:    iceberg,  man-servant,  son-in-law. 

Compound  Personal  Pronoun.    A  personal  pronoun  combined  with  self 

or  selves;  see  Intensive  Pronoun  and  Reflexive  Pronoun. 
Compound  Predicate.    A  predicate  containing  two  or  more  verbs. 

EXAMPLE:    It  rained  and  hailed  and  lightened  and  thundered. 

Compound  Preposition.  A  group  of  two  or  more  words  used  together  as  a 
preposition. 

EXAMPLES:    according  to,  because  of. 

Compound  Sentence.  A  sentence  containing  more  than  one  independent 
or  principal  clause. 

EXAMPLE:    He  returned  to  his  boyhood  home,  but  he  was  not  happy. 


APPENDIX  355 

Compound  Subject.  A  subject  containing  two  or  more  principal  words, 
or  subject  substantives. 

EXAMPLE:     John  and  Mary  were  very  happy. 

Concession,  Clause  of.  A  clause  admitting  something  that  may  be  granted 
without  interfering  with  a  certain  conclusion  which  is  stated  in  the 
principal  clause.  Though  is  the  most  common  concessive  conjunction. 

EXAMPLE  :     Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  him. 

Conditional  Clause.  A  subordinate  clause  stating  a  certain  condition  on 
which  a  conclusion,  stated  in  the  principal  clause,  is  based.  //  is  the 
typical  conditional  conjunction. 

EXAMPLE  :     //  you  can  come,  I  hope  you  will. 

Conjugation.     The  display  of  the  inflectional  forms  of  a  verb. 

Conjunction.  A  word  used  to  connect  words  or  groups  of  words;  distin- 
guished from  a  preposition  by  the  fact  that  a  preposition  forms  a  phrase 
with  the  words  that  go  with  it.  Conjunctions  are  of  two  kinds:  (a)  co- 
ordinating, connecting  elements  of  equal  rank;  (b)  subordinating,  con- 
necting a  subordinate  clause  with  a  principal  clause. 

EXAMPLES:     (a)  Work  and  wealth  are  not  commensurate, 
(b)  We  shall  stay  unless  the  river  rises. 

Conjunctive  Adverb — See  Relative  Adverb. 

Connection,  Genitive  of.  A  use  of  the  genitive  (possessive)  form  of  a 
noun  by  which  possession  is  not  actually  implied. 

EXAMPLE:    A  day's  work. 

Construction.     The  grammatical  function  of  a  word  or  group  of  words  in 

the  sentence. 
Coordinate.     Words  or  groups  of  words  that  are  equal  in  rank  are  called 

coordinate. 

Coordinating  Conjunction.     See  Conjunction. 
Correlative  Conjunctions.     Conjunctions  that  are  used  in  pairs. 

EXAMPLES:     either — or,  neither — nor,  both — and,  not  only — but  also. 
Dative.     See  Case. 
Declarative  Sentence.     A  sentence  that  asserts  or  declares. 

EXAMPLE  :     Potatoes  were  costly  that  year. 

Declension.     The  orderly  arrangement  of  the  inflectional  forms  of  nouns 

and  pronouns. 

Definite  Article.     See  Article. 
Degree.     See  Comparative  Degree. 
Demonstrative  Adjectives.     See  Demonstrative  Pronouns. 


356  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Demonstrative  Pronouns.  This,  thai,  these,  and  those,  when  used  instead 
of  nouns.  When  modifying  a  substantive,  they  are  Demonstrative 
Adjectives. 

EXAMPLES:     That  is  the  best  one  (pronoun). 
That  book  is  best  (adjective). 

Dependent  Clause.     See  Subordinate  Clause. 

Descriptive  Adjective.    An  adjective  that  tells  the  kind  or  condition  of 

some  person  or  thing.    Any  adjective  that  is  not  Limiting  (q.  v.). 
Direct  Object.     See  Object. 
Direct  Question.     See  Indirect  Question. 
Direct  Quotation.    See  Indirect  Quotation. 
Double  Narrative.    Unnecessary  repetition  in  telling  what  has  happened. 

See  Section  l.'.H. 

Double  Negative.    The  use  of  two  negatives  when  one  is  sufficient. 

EXAMPLE:  (Wrong)  (Right) 

I  haven't  had  no  dinner.  I  haven't  had  any  dinner. 

Double  Possessive.    Use  of  of  and  the  possessive  sign  in  the  same  phrase. 
EXAMPLE:    A  friend  of  Brown's. 

Emphatic  Verb  Forms.  Verb  phrases  formed  by  the  auxiliary  verb  do 
(did)  and  a  main  verb,  used  in  questions  and  negative  statements  as 
well  as  for  emphasis. 

EXAMPLES:    I  did  do  it. 

I  did  not  do  it. 
Did  he  do  it? 

Exclamation,  Nominative  of.  The  use  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  independ- 
ently in  exclamation. 

EXAMPLE:    The  rascal!    1  was  afraid  he  could  not  be  trusted. 

Exclamatory  Sentence.  A  sentence  expressing  strong  feeling,  and  followed 
by  an  exclamation  mark. 

EXAMPLE:    What  a  beautiful  day  it  is! 

Expletives.  The  words  there  and  it  when  used  to  introduce  the  verb 
before  the  subject. 

EXAMPLES:     There  were  six  of  us. 

//  is  true  that  he  cannot  go. 

Feminine  Gender.  The  form  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  the  female 
sex. 

EXAMPLES:    woman,  lioness,  heroine,  sultana,  she. 


APPENDIX  357 

Finite  Verb.     Any  verb  form  except  the  infinitive,  the  participle,  and  the 

gerund. 
Future  Perfect  Tense.     A  verb  form  used  to  express  the  completion  of  an 

act  in  the  future.     See  Section  26. 

Future  Tense.    A  verb  form  used  to  denote  time  to  come. 
Gender.    The  distinction  between  words  to  indicate  sex,  or  lack  of  sex. 

There  are  three  genders — masculine,   feminine,   and  neuter.     Words 

that  may  be  either  masculine  or  feminine  are  often  said  to  be  of  common 

gender. 

EXAMPLE  :     I  did  not  know  the  person  who  came. 

Genitive  Case.     The  forms  of  a  noun  that  show  possession;  also  called 

Possessive  Case.     See  Case. 
Gerund.    A  verb  form  in  ing  when  used  partly  as  a  verb  and  partly  as  a 

noun. 

EXAMPLE  :     Running  foot-races  is  good  for  keeping  one's  health. 

Gerundive  Phrase.     A  phrase  consisting  of  a  gerund  and  the  words  that 

go  with  it. 

Grammar.     A  systematic  description  of  the  laws  and  usages  of  a  language. 
Idiom.     "A  mode  of  expression  peculiar  to  a  language;  ....  a  phrase 

or  form  of  words  approved  by  the  usage  of  a  language."      [Century 

Dictionary] 
Imperative  Mood.    A  verb  form  identical  with  the  infinitive  (without  to) 

and  used  to  express  a  direct  command. 

EXAMPLE  :    Go!  you  are  not  wanted  here. 

Imperative  Sentence.     A  sentence  containing  an  imperative  verb. 
EXAMPLE  :     Pass  to  the  right. 

Impersonal  Subject.  It  used  as  a  subject  when  there  is  no  definite  ante- 
cedent. 

EXAMPLE  :     It  rained  nearly  all  day. 

Indefinite  Adjective.  An  adjective  which  may  also  be  used  as  an  indefinite 
pronoun. 

EXAMPLE  :     Any  true  man  will  be  welcome. 

Indefinite  Article.     See  Article. 

Indefinite  Pronoun.  A  pronoun  that  does  not  refer  to  any  particular 
person,  place,  or  thing.  Such  words  as  any,  each,  either,  other,  some, 
etc.,  when  used  in  place  of  nouns,  are  indefinite  pronouns. 

EXAMPLES:     Any  who  come  will  be  welcome. 

One  must  be  careful  of  one's  English. 


358  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Independent  Clause.     See  Clause. 

Independent  Elements  in  a  Sentence.     Words  or  groups  of  words  that  do 

not  grammatically  belong  to  either  the  subject  or  the  predicate.    These 

include   words   of    address,    exclamatory    nominatives,    interjections, 

nominative  absolutes,  parenthetical  expressions. 
Indicative  Mood.    The  verb  forms  employed  in  ordinary  statements  and 

in  questions;  the  commonest  forms  of  the  verb. 
Indirect  Object    A  noun  or  pronoun  used  without  a  preposition  to  name 

a  person  or  thing  to  whom  or  for  whom  something  is  done.    \\\\\\ 

active  verbs,  the  indirect  object  usually  immediately  precedes  the 

direct  object. 

EXAMPLES:    The  boy's  father  gave  Aim  a  watch. 
John  bought  his  sister  a  present. 

Indirect  Question.    Questions  are  direct  or  indirect.    The  former  employs 
the  exact  words  of  the  person  asking  it. 

EXAMPLE:    Where  are  you  going? 

The  indirect  question  does  not  use  the  questioner's  exact  words,  but  puts 
the  substance  of  the  question  in  a  subordinate  clause. 

EXAMPLE:    lie  asked  me  where  I  was  going. 

Notice  that  the  indirect  question  does  not  require  a  question  mark. 
Indirect  Quotation.    A  report  of  a  statement  in  words  other  than  those 

of  the  speaker. 

Direct  Quotation:       "/  will  go,"  said  Tom. 
Indirect  Quotation:    Tom  said  he  would  go. 

Note  that  an  indirect  quotation  does  not  employ  quotation  marks. 
Infinitive.    The  first  or  dictionary  form  of  a  verb.     In  a  sentence  it  is 

usually  preceded  by  to,  which  is  then  called  the  sign  of  the  infinitive. 

The  infinitive  is  most  frequently  used  as  a  noun,  sometimes  as  an 

adjective  or  an  adverb. 

EXAMPLES:     To  travel  is  to  learn  (noun). 

He  is  a  man  to  be  honored  (adjective). 
That  work  is  very  hard  to  do  (adverb). 

The  gerund  (q.  v. )  is  sometimes  called  the  infinitive  in  ing. 
Infinitive  Clause.     A  group  of  words  consisting  of  an  infinitive  with  a 

subject,  in  the  accusative  (objective)  case,  and  perhaps  a  predicate 

noun  or  pronoun  or  a  direct  object.    See  Section  64  (e). 
Infinitive  Phrase.     A  group  of  words  containing  an  infinitive  without  a 

subject/ 

EXAMPLE:     To  travel  so  far  was  more  than  I  could  do. 


APPENDIX  359 

Inflection.     The  variations  in  the  form  of  a  word  according  to  its  con- 
struction or  meaning. 
Intensive  Pronoun.     A  compound  personal  pronoun  used  for  emphasis. 

EXAMPLE  :     I  myself  heard  him. 

Interjection.  An  exclamatory  word  without  grammatical  construction 
in  the  sentence  and  not  of  any  other  part  of  speech. 

EXAMPLE  :     Hurrah!  here  comes  the  band. 
Interrogative  Adjective.     An  adjective  used  in  asking  a  question. 

EXAMPLE  :     Which  girl  do  you  mean? 
Interrogative  Adverb.     An  adverb  used  in  asking  a  question. 

EXAMPLE  :     Why  do  you  ask  me  this? 

Interrogative  Pronoun.  A  pronoun  used  to  ask  a  question.  The  inter- 
rogative pronouns  are  who  (including  whose  and  whom),  which,  and  what; 
sometimes  with  the  suffix  ever  added  to  the  simple  forms. 

Interrogative  Sentence.     A  sentence  that  asks  a  direct  question. 

Intransitive  Verb.     See  Transitive  Verb. 

Inverted  Order.  The  less  common  arrangement  of  a  sentence,  in  which 
a  part,  or  all,  of  the  predicate  precedes  the  subject;  also  called  transposed 
order.  Most  direct  questions  and  exclamations  are  in  inverted  order. 

EXAMPLES:     Why  did  he  not  come?     (Two  words  of  the  predicate 

precede  the  subject.) 
How  cold  it  is  today!     (Two  words  of  the  predicate 

precede  the  subject.) 
Irregular  Verb.    See  Regular  Verb. 

Limiting  Adjective.     An  adjective  that  points  out  or  denotes  number,  as 
distinguished  from  a  descriptive  adjective.     The  demonstrative  adjec- 
tives, indefinite  adjectives,  interrogative  adjectives,  numeral  adjectives, 
pronominal  adjectives,  and  the  articles  are  limiting  adjectives., 
Linking  Verb.     An  intransitive  verb  that  connects  the  subject  with  a 
predicate  noun  or  pronoun,  or  a  predicate  adjective. 
EXAMPLE:   The  sky  looks  dark. 

Masculine  Gender.  The  form  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  denoting  the  male 
sex. 

EXAMPLES:    man,  lion,  hero,  sultan,  he. 

Modifier.  A  word  or  group  of  words  which  changes  the  meaning  of  another 
word  or  group  of  words  by  adding  to  or  limiting  the  meaning. 

'Mood.  Variations  in  the  forms  of  a  verb  to  indicate  the  manner  of  the 
assertion.  Three  moods  are  now  recognized  in  English :  indicative, 
subjunctive,  imperative. 


360  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Natural  Order.  An  arrangement  of  the  sentence  in  which  the  subject 
precedes  the  predicate,  as  distinguished  from  inverted  (or  transposed) 
order. 

Natural  Superlative.  An  adjective  or  adverb  which  in  its  simple  form 
(positive  degree)  denotes  the  superlative  (highest  degree). 

EXAMPLE:    omnipotent. 

Negative,  Double.     See  Double  Negative. 

Neuter  Gender.    The  gender  of  an  object  without  sex. 

EXAMPLES:    book,  street,  it. 

Nominative  Case.     See  Case. 

Non-Restrictive  Modifier.    See  Restrictive  Modifier. 

Noun.    The  name  of  a  person,  place,  or  thing.    See  Abstract  Noun, 

Collective  Noun,  Common  Noun,  Proper  Noun. 
Noun  Clause.    A  clause  that  has  the  function  of  a  noun  in  the  sentence. 

EXAMPLE  :    I  thought  that  he  was  insane. 

Number.  The  inflection  of  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs  to  indicate  one 
or  more  than  one. 

Numerals.  Words  indicating  number.  They  may  be  (a)  nouns,  (b)  ad- 
jectives, (c)  adverbs. 

EXAMPLES:     (a)  Put  four  in  the  first  column. 

(b)  Four  singers  make  a  quartet. 

(c)  I  saw  him  twice  in  a  week. 

Object,  Direct.    The  receiver  of  the  action  expressed  by  a  transitive  verb. 
EXAMPLE:    They  struck  the  bell. 

Object,  Indirect    See  Indirect  Object. 

Object,  Secondary.     See  Secondary  Object. 

Objective,  Adverbial.    See  Adverbial  Accusative  (Objective). 

Objective  Case.    See  Case. 

Objective  Complement    See  Adjunct  Accusative. 

Participle.  A  form  of  the  verb  used  partly  like  an  adjective.  The  past 
participle  is  the  third  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb.  The  present 
participle  ends  in  ing.  The  forms  in  ing,  however,  may  be  gerunds 
(q.  v.). 

EXAMPLES  of  participles:    Finding  him  asleep,  I  left  at  once. 
I  saw  him  fishing  for  bass. 

Participial  Phrase.  A  phrase  consisting  of  a  participle  and  its  comple- 
ments or  modifiers. 

EXAMPLE  :     Finding  him  asleep,  I  left  at  once. 


APPENDIX  361 

Parts  of  Speech.  The  classes  of  words  as  to  use.  They  are  eight  in 
number:  nouns,  pronouns,  verbs,  adjectives,  adverbs,  prepositions, 
conjunctions,  and  interjections. 

Passive  Voice.     See  Voice. 

Past  Participle.  The  last  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb;  used  in  making 
the  passive  voice. 

EXAMPLE  :    go — went — gone. 

Past  Perfect  Tense.  The  tense  of  a  verb  that  represents  action  completed 
in  the  past. 

EXAMPLE  :     He  had  gone  when  I  arrived. 

Past  Tense.  A  verb  form  used  to  indicate  time  past;  the  second  of  the 
principal  parts. 

EXAMPLE  :    He  went  yesterday. 

Perfect  Tenses.     The  verb  phrases  which  show  completion;  they  are 

indicated  by  various  forms  of  the  auxiliary  verb  have. 
Person.     Inflection  of  a  substantive  or  a  verb  to  indicate  whether  the 

speaker  (first  person),  a  person  spoken  to  (second  person),  or  a  person 

or  thing  spoken  of  (third  person)  is  meant. 
Personal  Pronouns.     The  common  pronouns  which  represent  first  person, 

second  person,  and  third  person.     See  Sections  57-61. 
Phrase.    A  group  of  related  words  without  a  subject  and  a  predicate. 
Pluperfect.     Another  name  for  the  past  perfect  tense  (q.  v.). 
Plural  Number.     See  Singular  Number. 
Positive  Degree.     See  Comparative  Degree. 
Possession,  Genitive  of.     See  Case. 
Possessive  Adjective.     The  possessive  form  of  a  pronoun  when  it  is 

used  adjectively. 

EXAMPLES:    My  books  are  in  your  desk. 
Her  pencil  fell  to  the  floor. 

Possessive  Case.     See  Genitive  Case. 

Possessive  Pronoun.  The  possessive  form  of  a  pronoun  when  it  is  used 
substantively. 

EXAMPLES:      Mine  is  the  green  book. 
Yours  is  the  red  one. 

Predicate.  The  asserting  or  questioning  part  of  a  sentence.  It  most 
often  follows  the  naming  part,  or  the  subject.  The  basis  of  a  predicate 
is  a  verb. 

Predicate  Adjective.  An  adjective  in  the  predicate  describing  or  limiting 
the  subject. 

EXAMPLE:     Grapes  are  purple. 


VOCATIONAL  ENGL I  s !  I 

Predicate  Nominative.  A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  predicate  that  means, 
or  refers  to,  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject;  also  called  Predicate 
Noun  or  Predicate  Pronoun. 

EXAMPLES:    Washington  was  President. 
Would  that  I  had  been  he. 

Predicate  Verb.    The  verb,  or  asserting  word,  in  a  predicate. 
Preposition.    A  word  used  to  show  the  relation  of  a  substantive  that 
depends  on  it  grammatically,  with  some  other  part  of  the  sentence. 

EXAMPLE:    He  came  from  the  city. 
Prepositional  Phrase.    A  phrase  introduced  by  a  preposition. 

EXAMPLE  :    He  came  from  the  city. 
Present  Participle.     The  ing  form  of  the  verb  when  used  adjectively. 

EXAMPLE  :    The  sleeping  man  lay  quiet. 

Present  Perfect  Tense.  The  forms  of  the  verb  representing  completion 
of  action  in  present  time. 

EXAMPLE:    I  have  seen  many  strange  sights. 

Present  Tense.    The  forms  of  a  verb  that  make  assertions  in  regard  to 

present  time. 
Principal  Parts  of  a  Verb.    The  three  forms  which  furnish  the  basis  for 

conjugation.    They  are  the  present  indicative,  the  past  indicative,  and 

the  past  participle. 

EXAMPLE  :    Present — see,  Past — saw,  Past  Participle — seen. 

Progressive  Tenses.  Tenses  representing  continued  action,  formed  by 
the  use  of  the  auxiliary  be  and  the  present  participle  of  the  main  verb. 

EXAMPLE:     I  am  walking. 

Pronominal  Adjectives.  Words  that  are  used  as  adjectives,  but  which 
may  also  be  used  as  pronouns. 

EXAMPLES:     This  hat  is  mine.    . 

Either  coat  will  serve. 

Pronoun.    A  word  used  instead  of  a  noun. 

Proper  Adjective.     An  adjective  formed  from  a  proper  noun. 

EXAMPLE:    American  customs  are  uncertain. 

Proper  Noun.  The  name  of  some  particular  person,  place,  or  thing  (as 
opposed  to  class  names). 

EXAMPLE:    America. 


APPENDIX  363 

Question,  Direct.     See  Indirect  Question. 

Reflexive  Pronoun.  A  compound  personal  pronoun  used  after  a  verb 
or  a  preposition  to  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  verb. 

EXAMPLE:    He  hurt  himself. 

Regular  Verb.  A  verb  that  forms  its  second  and  third  principal  parts 
by  adding  d  or  ed  (sometimes  t)  to  the  first  principal  part.  Verbs  that 
form  their  second  and  third  principal  parts  in  other  ways  are  called 
Irregular. 

EXAMPLES:    hope,      hoped,     hoped     (Regular) 
write,      wrote,      written  (Irregular) 

Relative  Adverb.  A  word  that  combines  some  of  the  force  of  an  adverb 
with  that  of  a  subordinating  conjunction.  See  Section  78,  footnote. 

Relative  Clause.    A  clause  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun. 

Relative  Pronoun.  A  pronoun  that  is  used  in  joining  a  subordinate  clause 
to  a  principal  clause. 

EXAMPLE  :    He  is  the  man  whom  I  saw. 

Restrictive  Modifier.  A  word,  phrase,  or  clause  which  narrows  the 
application  of  the  word  it  modifies. 

EXAMPLE:     The  man  who  has  money  can  make  money. 

A  Non-Restrictive  Modifier  retards  the  progress  of    the  sentence  to 
add  to  the  idea  of  the  word  modified. 

EXAMPLE  :     The  old  man,  tired  and  discouraged,  gave  up  the  task. 

Retained  Object.  When  an  active  sentence  containing  two  complements 
of  different  kinds  (direct  and  indirect  objects,  direct  and  secondary 
objects,  etc.)  is  made  passive,  one  of  the  objects  (or  complements)  is 
kept  after  the  passive  verb  and  is  called  a  retained  object. 

EXAMPLE:    Active  — They  gave  him  a  book  (direct  object). 
Passive — He  was  given  a  book  (retained  object). 

Secondary  Object.  The  verbs  ask  and  teach  sometimes  take  two  objects: 
one,  the  direct  object,  indicating  the  person  who  receives  the  action; 
the  other,  the  secondary  object,  indicating  what  is  asked  or  taught. 

EXAMPLE:    The  teacher  asked  me  (direct  object)  a  question  (secondary 
object). 

Sentence.  See  Complex  Sentence,  Complex-Compound  Sentence,  Com- 
pound Sentence,  Declarative  Sentence,  Exclamatory  Sentence,  Impera- 
tive Sentence,  Interrogative  Sentence,  Simple  Sentence. 

Sign  of  the  Infinitive.    See  Infinitive. 


:;<ii  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Simple  Predicate.     A  predicate  containing  but  one  predicate  verb  or 

phrase. 
Simple  Sentence.     A^sontence  that  contains  but  one  clause,  that  makes 

but  one  assertion;  distinguished  from  complex  and  compound  sentences. 
Simple  Subject    A  subject  containing  but  one  principal  word  or  subject 

substantive. 
Singular  Number.     The  form  of  a  wort!  that  Denotes  one  person  or  thing 

is  called  the  Singular  form.     The  form  that  denotes  more  than  one  is 

called  the  Plural  form. 

EXAMPLES:    Singular — man,  book,  he. 
Plural — men,  books,  they. 

Split  Infinitive.  An  infinitive  of  \vhirh  the  main  part  is  separated  from 
to  by  one  or  more  words,  usually  adverbs.  See  Section  55. 

Subject  The  part  of  a  sentence  that  tells  about  whom  or  about  what 
something  is  said. 

Subject  Substantive.  The  principal  word  (or  group  of  words)  in  a  subject, 
usually  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

EXAMPLE:    The  brown  house  on  the  west  side  of  the  street  is  mine. 

Subjunctive  Mood.  A  mood  of  the  verb  used  to  express  a. few  special 
meanings  such  as  wish,  uncertainty,  condition  contrary  to  fact,  etc. 

EXAMPLES:    Long  live  the  President. 

If  I  were  king,  I  would  do  differently. 

Subordinate  Clause.  A  clause  that  does  not  make  complete  sense  by 
itself. 

EXAMPLE  :    The  man  whom  you  saw  is  my  father. 

Subordinating  Conjunction.     See  Conjunction. 

Substantive.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  or  any  word  or  group  of  words  used 
as  a  noun. 

EXAMPLE:    Sliding  down  the  banisters  was  forbidden. 

Substantive  Clause.     See  Noun  Clause. 

Superlative  Degree.  The  form  of  an  adjective  or  adverb  indicating  the 
highest  degree  of  a  quality  or  quantity.  See  Comparative  Degree. 

Tense.  The  forms  of  the  verb  (and  verb  phrases)  used  to  indicate  differ- 
ences of  time.  Six  tenses  are  ordinarily  recognized:'  simple — (1)  Pres- 
ent, (2)  Past,  (3)  Future;  compound— (4)  Present  Perfect,  (5)  Past 
Perfect,  (6)  Future  Perfect. 

Transitive  Verb.  A  verb  that  represents  the  action  as  passing  over  to  a 
direct  object. 

EXAMPLE:    John  struck  James. 


APPENDIX  365 

Any  verb  that  is  not  transitive  is  Intransitive. 
Transposed  Order.    See  Inverted  Order. 
Verb.    A  word  used  to  assert  action  or  existence;  the  principal  word  in  a 

predicate. 
Verb  Phrase.     A  group  of  words  which  taken  together  make  up  a  verb 

form.     A  verb  phrase  usually  consists  of  one  or  more  auxiliary  verbs 

followed  by  a  participle  or  an  infinitive  of  the  main  verb. 

EXAMPLES:     I  may  be  driving  the  car. 
I  can  go. 

Verbals.  Participles,  infinitives,  and  gerunds.  These  are  words  which, 
although  formed  from  verbs  and  retaining  some  of  the  functions  of  the 
verbj  have  also  some  of  the  functions  of  other  parts  of  speech. 

Voice.  The  change  in  the  forms  of  a  verb  to  show  whether  the  subject 
is  acting  (Active  Voice)  or  acted  upon  (Passive  Voice). 

EXAMPLES:    Active  — I  struck  the  boy. 

Passive — I  was  struck  by  the  car. 


APPENDIX   B 
BUSINESS  FORMS  FOR  TRANSMITTING  MONEY 

Little  money  is  now  sent  through  the  mail  in  the  form  of  run 
because  there  are  so  many  safe  means  at  hand.    Small  amounts  may  be 
sent  in  postage  stamps  if  you  have  reason  to  believe  that  stamps  will  be 
acceptable.    There  are  many  forms  of  payment,  four  of  which  are  here 
explained. 

1.  The  Bank  Check.  Payment  within  short  distances  is  now  almost 
universally  made  by  means  of  the  bank  check.  A  man  deposits  with  a 
bank  a  sum  of  money,  say  one  hundred  dollars.  He  has  a  right  to  issue 
checks  or  orders  upon  the  bank  to  pay  to  himself  or  some  one  else,  amounts 
of  money  up  to  one  hundred  dollars.  However,  if  he  should  overdraw, 
i.  e.,  issue  a  check  for  an  amount  greater  than  the  sum  he  has  in  the  bank, 
the  bank  will  not  pay  any  part  of  the  check,  but  will  return  it  to  the  person 
presenting  it  for  pnyimnt.  Usually  the  bank  stamps  such  a  check 
N.  S.  F.  (not  sufficient  funds). 

The  check  should  not  be  used  for  long-distance  payments.  The  banks 
of  a  large  city  or  some  other  definite  section  of  the  country  support  what  is 
known  as  a  clearing  house,  to  which  clerks  from  all  the  banks  sup- 
porting it  go  once  every  day.  Each  clerk  takes  with  him,  bound  in  sep- 
arate packages,  all  the  checks  his  bank  has  paid  out  for  each  bank 
in  the  clearing  house  district.  At  an  arranged  time,  usually  at  the  ringing 
of  a  bell,  these  clerks  start  the  rounds,  each  leaving  upon  each  other 
clerk's  desk  the  checks  he  has  against  his  bank,  together  with  properly 
prepared  totals.  Then  debits  are  balanced  against  credits,  until  it  is 
determined  just  how  much  should  be  paid  to  or  paid  by  any  bank.  Later 
in  the  day  the  banks  make  actual  settlement  of  indebtedness.  Naturally, 
when  the  paying  bank  and  the  bank  holding  the  deposit  do  not  clear 
through  the  same  clearing  house,  considerable  trouble  results.  Usually 
banks  charge  five  or  ten  cents  for  handling  checks  from  a  distance.  Some- 
times when  the  distance  is  great,  payment  is  refused. 

The  check  has  several  advantages  over  other  methods  of  sending 
money.  These  advantages  are: 

1.  Economy  of  money.    Within  the  same  clearing  house  district 
there  is  no  charge  for  handling  checks. 

2.  Safety.    Canceled  checks  are  returned  to  the  maker.     They 
may  then  be  filed  as  a  record  of  the  transaction.     They  make  excellent 
receipts. 

3.  Economy  of  time.     The  maker  can  write  a  check  at  any  place 
and  at  any  time,  being  free  from  office-hour  limitations  and  from 
the  necessity  of  journeying  to  bank  or  office. 

366 


APPENDIX 


367 


When  you  write  a  check  be  careful  to  fill  out  all  blanks  and  to 
write  plainly.  Two,  written,  can  easily  be  changed  to  Five,  for  instance, 
because  of  the  similarity  of  script  capitals,  T  and  F.  While  "raised 
checks"  are  uncommon,  it  is  wise  to  use  considerable  precaution. 

*  Before  a  bank  pays  a  check,  the  holder  is  required  to  sign  his  name 
across  the  back.  This  is  called  indorsing,  and  indicates  the  receiver  of 
the  money.  For  this  reason  a  canceled  check  becomes  a  receipt. 

2.  The  Certified  Check.  A  personal  check  is,  of  course,  always  open 
to  a  little  doubt  as  to  its  worth,  the  holder  never  being  absolutely  sure 


CHICAGO. 


that  it  is  good  until  it  has  been  paid  by  the  bank  on  which  it  is  drawn. 
For  this  reason,  business  men  often  refuse  to  accept  a  check  unless  they 
know  the  maker.  A  certified  check,  on  the  other  hand,  is  as  good  as  cur- 
rency anywhere  within  the  territory  served  by  the  bank  on  which  it  is 
drawn.  It  is  a  personal  check  bearing  the  guarantee  of  the  bank  of 
deposit.  The  process  is  as  follows : 

You  write  your  check  just  as  you  would  in  the  ordinary  case.  This 
you  prssent  at  your  bank  with  the  request  that  it  be  certified.  The  bank 
sets  aside  immediately  the  specified  sum  of  money,  which  is  held  thereafter 
to  pay  that  check  only.  The  cashier,  or  other  officer,  stamps  Certified 
and  the  date  across  the  face  of  the  check,  signs  under  the  stamp,  and 
returns  the  check  to  you. 

If  for  any  reason  you  decide  not  to  send  a  certified  check,  be  sure 
not  to  destroy  it;  otherwise  the  bank  would  be  holding  your  money  against 
the  check  and  you  would  have  a  deal  of  trouble  getting  the  money  released. 
The  bank  will  restore  the  money  to  your  checking  account  upon  your 
presenting  the  check  for  cancellation. 

3.  The  Bank  Draft.  For  the  payment  of  money  in  a  distant  city 
the  bank  draft  is  most  used.  It  is  really  only  a  check,  the  maker  of  which 
is  a  bank  instead  of  an  individual  or  a  firm,  drawn  on  a  bank  in  or  near 
the  city  of  the  payee.  As  with  the  clearing  house,  credit  is  balanced 
against  credit;  only,  in  the  case  of  the  bank  draft,  city  clearing  houses  instead 
of  banks  must  settle  finally.  In  case  Chicago  draws  more  on  New  York 


368 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


banks  than  New  York  draws  on  Chicago  banks,  Chicago  will  have  at  certain 
intervals  to  ship  coin  by  express  to  New  York. 


ENGLEWOOD  STATE  BANK 


I'ayim-iits  l»rt\\rni  f..p-uri  r<.untii.s  ami  Aim-nra  an-  maiir  in  much 
the  same  way.  Banks  usually  charge  for  this  service,  although  at  times 
when  drafts  are  going  strongly  in  one  direction  the  banks  are  glad  to 
issue  free  drafts  going  in  the  other  direction,  to  avoid  shipment  of  coin. 
Since  the  risk  of  overseas  shipment  of  money  is  considerable,  it  is  at 
times  possible  to  buy  a  draft  payable  in  another  country  for  less  than  its 
face  value.  Thus  it  often  happens  that  when  New  York  bankers  face  the 
necessity  of  shipping  gold  to  London,  they  will  pay  the  buyers  of  London 
drafts  on  New  York  a  premium.  At  such  a  time  a  man  in  London 
miidit  buy  for  say  $499  a  draft  calling  for  $500  in  New  York.  If,  how- 
ever, at  such  a  time  a  New  York  man  wants  to  buy  a  draft  on  London, 
he  will  have  to  pay  rather  heavily  for  it. 


-   ; 


Enolcwoofc  State  JSanh 


4.  The  Money  Order.  A  very  safe  way  of  transmitting  money  is 
by  the  use  of  the  postal  money  order.  It  is  especially  useful  for  sending 
money  to  small  towns  or  to  country  districts  where  banks  are  little  used. 
Every  money  order  post  office  has  the  necessary  blanks  for  this  purpose. 

The  express  money  order  is  similar  to  the  postal  money  order. 


APPENDIX  C 


ABBREVIATIONS 

Note  the  absence  of  the  apostrophe  when  letters  are  omitted  from  an  abbre- 
viation. All  abbreviations  end  with  a  period.  The  following  lists  are  selected 
to  include  only  abbreviations  in  fairly  common  use.  See  dictionaries  for  others. 


Commercial: 

@ at 

Al best  grade 

acct account 

ad  val ad   valorem    (according 

to  value) 

agt agent 

a.m.  (A.M.) -forenoon 

amt amount 

ans answer 

A/S Account  sales 

bal balance 

bdl bundle 

B/L Bill  of  lading 

bldg building 

b.  o buyer's  option 

bu bushel 

bx box  (es) 

c.  i.  f cost,   insurance,   and 

freight. 

c/o in  care  of 

Co Company 

C.  O.  D Cash  on  delivery 

cr credit,  creditor 

cts.  (£) cents 

cwt hundredweight 

dept department 

dft draft 

do ditto  (the  same) 

doz dozen 

dr debtor 

E.  E Errors  excepted 

E.  O.  D Every  other  day 

E.  &  0.  E.  .  .Errors    and    omissions 

excepted 


et  al and  others 

etc (et  cetera)  and  so  forth 

ex.,  exch exchange 

fgt freight 

F.O.B Free  onboard 

ft foot,  feet 

gal. , gallon  (s) 

gr gross 

hhd. . . hogshead 

h.  p horse  power  (also  half 

pay) 

i.  e that  is 

in inch  (es) 

inc.  (incor.).  .incorporated 

ins insurance 

inst this  month 

int interest 

inv invoice 

K.  D Knocked  down 

kg keg 

£ Pound  sterling  (English 

money) 

Ib pound 

L.  S Place  for  a  seal 

M Noon  (12  p.  m.  is  mid- 
night) 

mdse merchandise 

memo memorandum 

mfg manf  acturing 

mfr manufacturer 

mos months 

N.B Take  notice 

no number 

N.  S.  F Not  sufficient  funds 

O.  K All  right 


369 


370 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


oi ounce  (s) 

P 

PP. 

payt payment 

PC piece 

pd paid 

per  an by  the  year 

per  cent  (%) .  by  the  hundred 

pkg package 

pks pecks 

!'l plate  (s) 

p.m.  (P.M.). afternoon 

prox next  month 

qt quart  (s) 

reed received 

rep reports 

rd road 

R.  R Railroad 

Ry Railway 


sq.  ft square  foot 

S.  S Steamship 

Str Steamer 

ult last  month 

via  (not  really 
an  abbre- 
viation) ...  by  way  of 

vis namely 

vs against 

W/B Waybill 

wk week 

wt weight 

yds yards 

yr year 

Geographical: 

Af.  (Afr.)..   .Africa 

Ala Alabama 

Alta Alberta 

Am.  (Amer.). America,  American 

Ariz Arizona 

Ark...          ..Arkansas 


Atl .Atlantic 

Austral Australasia 

Auat.-Hung. .  Austria-Hungary 

Belg Belgium 

Br.Col.(B.C.)British  Columbia 

Brit Britain,  British 

Bulg Bulgaria 

Cal.  (Calif.).. California 

Can Canada 

Chi.  (Chgo.). Chicago 

Colo Colorado 

Conn Connecticut 

D.  C District  of  Columbia 

Del Delaware 

Den Denmark 

Edin Edinburgh 

E.I East  Indies 

Eng England,  English 

Fin Finland 

Fl Flanders 

Fla. Florida 

Ga, Georgia 

Ger Germany 

Glas.. Glasgow 

<-r Greece,  Greek 

Gt.Br.  (G.B.)Great  Britain 

ill Hawaiian  Islands 

la. Iowa 

Ida.  (Id.).... Idaho 

111 Illinois 

Ind Indiana,  India 

Ire Ireland 

It Italy 

Jam Jamaica 

Jap Japan 

Kan.  (Kas.). .  Kansas 

Ky Kentucky 

La Louisiana 

Lab Labrador 

Lond London 

Man Manitoba 

Mass Massachusetts 

Md Maryland 


APPENDIX 


371 


Me Maine 

Mex Mexico 

Mich Michigan 

Minn Minnesota 

Miss Mississippi 

Mo Missouri 

Mont Montana 

N.  A. North  America 

N.  B New  Brunswick 

N.  C North  Carolina 

N.Dak.(N.D.)North  Dakota 

N.  E New  England 

Neb Nebraska 

Neth Netherlands 

Nev Nevada 

N.  F Newfoundland 

N.  H New  Hampshire 

N.  J New  Jersey 

N.  Mex 

(N.  M.)«  •  .New  Mexico 
Nor.  (Norw.). Norway 

N.  S Nova  Scotia 

N.  Y ...New  York 

N.  Y.  C New  York  City 

N.  Z New  Zealand 

O Ohio 

Okla Oklahoma 

Ont Ontario 

Ore Oregon 

Pa.  (Penn.) . .  Pennsylvania 

Pac Pacific 

P.  E.  I Prince  Edward  Island 

Pers Persia 

Phila Philadelphia 

P.  I Philippine  Islands 

Pol Poland,  Polish 

Port Portugal 

P.  R Porto  Rico 

Prus Prussia 

Que Quebec 

R.  I Rhode  Island 

Russ Russia 

S.A.(S.Amer.)South  America 


S.  Afr South  Africa 

Sask Saskatchewan 

S.  C South  Carolina 

Scand Scandinavia 

Scot Scotland 

S.D.(S.Dak.). South  Dakota 

Sic Sicily 

Sp Spain 

Sw.  (Swed.) . .  Sweden 

Switz Switzerland 

Syr Syria 

Tenn Tennessee 

Tex Texas 

Turk Turkey,  Turkish 

U.  S United  States 

TJ.  S.  A United  States  of  America 

Ut Utah 

Va Virginia 

Vt Vermont 

Wash Washington 

W.I.  (W.Ind.)West  Indies 

W.  Va West  Virginia 

Wis Wisconsin 

Wyo Wyoming 

General: 

a.  (adj.) adjective 

A.B.  (B.A.) .  .Bachelor  of  Arts 

Abp Archbishop 

ace accusative 

act active 

A.  D in  the  year  of  our  Lord 

A.  D.  C Aide-de-camp 

ad.  (ads.) ....  advertisement(s) 

adj adjective 

Adjt.  (Adj.)-. Adjutant 

ad  lib at  pleasure 

Adm Admiral 

admr administrator 

adv adverb;  advocate 

afft affidavit 

A.  G Adjutant  General,   At- 
torney General 


372 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


A.M.  (M.A.) .  Master  of  Arts 

Amb Ambassador 

anc ancient 

anon anonymous 

Apr April 

arch architecture 

arith arithmetic 

art article;  artillery 

assn.  (assoc.) .  association 

asst assistant 

astron astronomy 

atty attorney 

A.  U.  C from    the    founding    of 

Rome     (anno     urbis 

conditae) 

Aug August 

av.  (ave.)..  .  .avenue 
b born 

B.  A Bachelor  of  Arts 

Bart Baronet 

bat batallion 

B.  C before  Christ 

B.  D Bachelor  of  Divinity 

Bib Bible 

fciog \...  biography 

t>iol biology 

B.  L.  (B.  LL.)Bachelor  of  Law 

bot botany 

boul.  (blvd.)  -boulevard 

Bp Bishop* 

brig brigade;  brigadier 

bro.  (bros.) .  .  brother(s) 

B.  S Bachelor  of  Science 

c about  (circa);  cubic 

C Centigrade  (thermome- 
ter) 

Capt Captain 

car carats 

Card Cardinal 

Cath Catholic 

cav cavalry 

cc cubic  centimeter(s) 

C.E Civil  Engineer 


century 

cert certificate 

( f compare  (confer) 

C.  H Court  House 

chap  (ch.) . . .  chapter 

chem chemistry 

civ civil;  civilian 

C.J Chief  Justice 

cl clause 

<lk clerk 

col college;  colored;  column 

Col Colonel 

Com Commander;  Commo- 
dore; committee 

Cong Congress;  Congrega- 
tional 

con  j conjunction 

cor corner;  corresponding; 

corrected 

c.  p candle  power 

C.  8 Christian  Science 

cu cubic 

d penny  (English) 

dat dative 

D.  C from  the  beginning  (da 

capo) 

D.  C.  L Doctor  of  Civil  Law 

D.  D Doctor  of  Divinity 

D.D.§ Doctor  of  Dental  Sur- 
gery 

Dec December 

deft defendant 

deg degree 

Dem Democrat 

diam diameter 

diet dictated;  dictionary 

dist district 

div division 

D.  M Doctor  of  Music 

Dr Doctor 

D.  Sc Doctor  of  Science 

D.  V.  M Doctor  of  Veterinary 

Medicine 


APPENDIX 


373 


ed edition ;  editor 

e.  g . . .for  example  (exempli 

gratia) 

elec electricity 

eng engineer 

esp especially 

Esq Esquire 

est established;  estate 

et  seq and  following  (et  se- 

quens) 

exr executor 

F.  (Fahr.) .  . .  Fahrenheit  (thermome- 
ter) 

Feb February 

fern feminine 

ff following;  folios 

fig figure 

for foreign 

Fr Father;  French 

Fri Friday 

F.  R.  S Fellow    of    the    Royal 

Society 
fut future 

G.  A.  R Grand    Army    of    the 

Republic 

gen genitive 

geog geography 

geol geology 

geom geometry 

ger gerund 

Gov ! .  Governor 

govt government 

gr.  (gram.). .  .grammar 

hdkf handkerchief 

Heb Hebrew(s) 

Hind Hindu 

hist history;  historian 

H.  M his  (her)  Majesty 

Hon Honorable 

hr hour 

H.  R House  of  Representa- 
tives 

H.  R.  E Holy  Roman  Empire 


H.  R.  H his  (her)  Royal  High- 
ness 

h.  s high  school 

ib.  (ibid.) ....  in  the  same  place  (ibi- 
dem) 

id the  same  (idem) 

IHS Jesus 

ill.  (illus.)  . .  .illustrated 

incl inclusive;    including 

incog unknown  (incognito) 

ind independent;  indicative 

inf infantry;  infinitive 

isl island 

ital italic 

Jan January 

jour journal 

J.  P Justice  of  the  Peace 

Jr.  (Jun.) Junior 

June Junction 

K.  C Knights  of  Columbus 

kg kilogram 

km kilometer 

knt knight 

K.  T Knight  Templar 

lat latitude 

Lat .Latin 

1.  c lower  case  (small  let- 
ters); in  the  place 
cited  (loco  citato) 

Lieut.  (Lt.) . .  Lieutenant 

lit .literature;  literary 

Litt.  D Doctor  of  Letters 

LL.  B Bachelor  of  Laws 

LL.  D Doctor  of  Laws 

long longitude 

loq he  (or  she)  speaks  (lo- 
quitur) 

m meter;  minute;  mascu- 
line 

M Monsieur;  noon 

M.  A Master  of  Arts 

Maj Major 

Mar.  (Mch.) .  March 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


masculine 

math mathematics 

max maximum 

M.  C Member  of  Congress 

M.  D Doctor  of  Medicine 

M.  E Methodist  Episcopal 

med medicine;  medieval 

memo memorandum 

Messrs Messieurs  (plural  of  Mr.) 

Mgr Monsignor;  manager 

n.i.l middle 

mil military;  militia 

inin.  minute 

Min.  IMcu.      Minister  Plenipotentiary 

misc miscellaneous 

Mile Mademoiselle 

mm millimeter 

Mme Madame 

Mon Monday 

M .  P.  M  ember  of  Parliament 

ms.   or    MS. 

(plural  mss 

or  MSS.) .  .manuscript 

mt mountain 

Mus.  Doc.. . .  Doctor  of  Music 

n noun 

naut nautical 

neut neuter 

nom ." .  nominative 

Nov November 

obj object;  objective 

obs obsolete 

Oct October 

par paragraph 

part participle 

pass passive 

pat patent(ed) 

Ph.B Bachelor  of  Philosophy 

Ph.D Doctor  of  Philosophy 

Ph.G Graduate  in  Pharmacy 

pinx he   (or  she)   painted  it 

(pinxit) 
plff plain  tiff 


plur plural 

P.  M Postmaster 

P.  O Post  office 

pol.  econ political  economy 

pop population 

poss possessive 

p.  p past  participle 

pr present 

pred predicate 

prep preposition;  preparatory 

Pres.  . . .  v. .  .President;  present 

Prin Principal 

Prof professor 

pron pronoun;  pronounced 

Prot Protestant 

pro  tern .          f  <  >r  the  time  being 

prov province 

pub publisher;  published 

punct pun«-t  u:iti.  »M 

q question ;  quire 

Q.  E.  D which  was  to  be  proved 

(quod  erat  demon- 
strandum) 

Q.  M quarterma*t«  r 

Q.  M.  G Quartermaster  General 

q.  v which  see  (quod  vide) 

qy query 

I\.  (Reaum.) .  Reaumer  (a  thermo- 
metric  system) 

R.  A Rear  Admiral;  Royal 

Academy 

R.  C Red  Cross 

rec.  sec recording  secretry 

Rect Rector 

ref reference;  reformed 

regt regiment 

rel relative 

Rep Representative;  Repub- 
lican 

Rev.  Ver Revised  Version 

r.  f rapid-fire 

R.  F.  D Rural  Free  Delivery 

rhet rhetoric 


APPENDIX 


375 


R.  M.  S Royal  Mail  Steamer 

R.  N Royal  Navy 

Rom.  Cath.    Roman  Catholic 

R.  P.  O Railroad  Post  Office 

R.  S.  V.  P... Reply  if  you  please 
(French  phrase  with 
this  meaning) 

Rt.  Hon Right  Honorable 

Rt.  Rev Right  Reverend 

S.  (SS.) Saint(s);   section(s) 

S.  A Salvation  Army 

Sab Sabbath 

Sat Saturday 

S.  B Bachelor  of  Science 

s.  c small  capital 

sci science 

Script Scripture 

sculp he    (or   she)    carved   it 

(Lat.  sculpsit) 

sec section;  secretary 

Sen Senate;  Senator 

Sept September 

sergt sergeant 

sh shilling 

Shak Shakspere 

sing singular 

S.  J Society  of  Jesus 

S.  O.  S wireless  distress  signal 

sov sovereign 

sp spelling 

sp.gr specific  gravity 

S.  P.  Q.  R.. .  .the  Senate  and  the  peo- 
ple of  Rome 

Sr Senior 

St Saint;    street 

ster sterling 

subj subject;  subjunctive 


subst substantive 

suff suffix 

Sun Sunday 

Supt Superintendent 

surg surgeon 

syn synonym 

tech technical;    technology 

tel telegram;  telephone 

ter territory 

Test Testament 

Thurs Thursday 

tr trustee;    transpose; 

translator 

treas treasurer 

Tues Tuesday 

Univ Universalist;  university 

U.  S.  A United  States  Army; 

United  States  of 

America 
U.  S.M United    States    Mail; 

United  States  Marine 

U.  S.  N United  States  Navy 

U.  S.  S United  States  Ship 

v verb 

var variant 

Vat .Vatican 

Ven venerable 

Vise Viscount 

vol volume 

V.  P. Vice-President 

W.C.T.U Woman's    Christian 

Temperance  Union 

Wed Wednesday 

Xmas Christmas 

Y.M.C.A Young  Men's  Christian 

Association 
Zool Zoology 


APPENDIX  D 

BOOKS— A  MINIMUM  REQUIREMENT 

The  great  books  have  become  so  much  a  part  of  conversation  and  are 
referred  to  so  often  even  in  everyday  affairs — newspapers,  business  letters, 
advertising,  etc. — that  a  knowledge  of  them  is  necessary  even  from  the 
mere  standpoint  of  dollars  and  cents.  If  we  add  to  the  material  advantage, 
the  pleasure,  the  moral  development,  and  the  mental  stimulation  derived 
from  the  great  books  of  the  ages,  we  must  feel  that  any  young  business 
man  or  woman  cannot  afford  to  be  ignorant  of  the  books  which  have  had 
so  great  a  part  in  building  our  civilization. 

The  following  list  should  be  regarded  as  a  minimum.  The  authors 
have  chosen  the  list  with  the  qualifications  and  limitations  of  the  high- 
school  student  in  mind,  and  have  therefore  omitted  many  great  books — 
for  instance,  many  of  the  great  plays  of  Shakspere — because  they  might 
not  hold  the  interest  of  youth.  You  should,  during  your  high-school  course, 
read  every  one  of  the  following  books: 

David  Copperfield  .  .  Dickens 

Jane  Eyre . .  Bronte 

'  John  Halifax Mrs.  Mulock-Craik 

Ben//  ...,w. Wallace 

Ivanhoe  ..Scott 

Silas  Mamer. .  .George  Eliot 

Treasure  Island Stevenson 

The  Three  Guardsmen .  .  .  .  .  Dumas 

The  Virginian \\  ister 

Robinson  Crusoe Defoe 

The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii Ly tton 

Tom  Sawyer ' Clemens 

Autobiography ...  Franklin 

Rebecca  of  Sunnybrook  Farm Wiggin 

The  Man  Without  a  Country Hale 

The  Sketch  Book Irving 

Little  Women Alcott 

The  Lady  of  the  Lake Scott 

Scottish  Chiefs Porter 

Ramona Jackson 

The  Little  Shepherd  of  Kingdom  Come Fox 

Lorna  Doone Blackmore 

The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table Holmes 

The  Golden  Treasury Palgrave 

376 


INDEX 


References  are  to  pages. 


a,  the  sound  of,  184 
A  and  an: 

distinction  in  use,  352 

omission  of,  106 
Abbreviations: 

capitals  in,  161 

lists  of,  369-375 

periods  after,  144,  277 

to  be  used  sparingly,  162,  281 
Absolute  nominative,  351 
Abstract  nouns,  22,  351 
Accept  and  except,  176,  196 
Accidentally  (not  acddently),  179 
Accordingly — an  adverb,  97 

semicolon  needed  before  it,  131 
Accusative  case-uses,  90,  353 
Accusative-dative  case,  66,  69-72 
Active  voice: 

change  from,  to  passive,  39,  40, 
108,  230,  365 

definition,  39,  351 

progressive,  signs  of,  41 
Address: 

commas  with  words  of,  121 

how  punctuated,  129,  277 

nominative  of,  351 

of  person  to  whom  one  is  writing, 
needed,  278    • 

writer's,  needed  in  letter,  276 
Adjective  (not  ajetive),  182 
Adjective: 

clause,  351 

comparison,  77-80,  353 

definition,  77,  351 

hyphen  in  compound,  167 

or  adverb,  81 

phrase,  351 

position  of,  77 

possessive,  66,  68 


predicate,  12,  77,  81,  82,  361 

restrictive  and  non-restrictive,  123 

series  separated  by  commas,  116 
Adjunct  accusative,  351 
Adjustment,  letter  of,  315 
Adore,  misuse  of,  243 
Adverb : 

adjective  or,  81 

comparison  of,  78 

definition,  351 

"flat"  adverbs,  83 

redundant  adverbs,  95 

relative,  96 

" where"  adverbs,  87 
Adverbial    accusative    (objective), 

351 

Adverbial  clause,  352 
Adverbial  phrase,  352 
Advertisements : 

catching  attention  in,  343 

construction  of,  342 

interesting,  206 

overdrawn,  349 

personal  appeal  in,  343,  344 

transition  in,  345,  346 

types  of,  341,  347-349 

writing  of,  341,  342 
Advertising: 

benefits  from,  340 

growth  of,  339 
Advice  and  advise,  176,  196 
Advise — trite  in  letters,  287 
Aeroplane   or   airplane    (not    area- 
plane},  179 

Affect  and  effect,  176,  196 
After,    either   preposition   or    con- 
junction, 99 

Again,   misused   for    agzinst,    240, 
249 


377 


378 


VOCATIONAL  KNdUSll 


Aggravated,  misufled  for  exasperated, 

241 
Agreement: 

defined,  352 

of  pronoun  and  antecedent,  62-65 

of  subject  and  verb,  57-60 
Aint,  61,  348 

All  as  indefinite  pronoun,  63 
All  right— two  words,  166 
Allusion  and  illusion,  196 
Alphabetizing,  exercise  in,  157 
Almost — one  word,  166 

distinguished  from  most,  85 
Already — one  word,  166 
Alright — no  such  word,  166 
Also — adverb,  97 

not  always  set  off  by  commas, 

121 

Altar  and  alter,  176 
Although— one  word,  166 
Altogether — one  word,  166 
Always — one  word,  166 
Ambiguity,  commas  to  avoid,  127 
American  speech,  faults  in,  181 
Among  and  between,  90,  91 
And  and  to,  99 
Angel  and  angle,  176 
Antecedent: 

agreement  of  pronoun  with,  62-65 

denned,  352 

disagreement   between    pronoun 
and,  232 

every  one,  etc.,  as,  64 

reference  to  uncertain,  109 
Anybody  as  indefinite  pronoun,  63 
Any  one  as  indefinite  pronoun,  64 
Anyplace,  anywhere,  etc.,  87 
Apiece — one  word,  166 
Apostrophe: 

defined,  352 

in  possessive  forms,  27,  28 

wrongly  used  in  pronouns,  68 
Appear,  when  followed  by   adjec- 
tive, 82 


Application  for  a  position,  letter  of, 

297-300 

Application  in  person,  197,  301-303 
Appositives: 

commas  for,  125 

dashes  for,  136 

defined,  352 

nominative,  67 

objective,  70 

person  of,  22 

Arctic  (not  Artie),  179,  182,  186 
Articles: 

defined,  352 

distinction  between,  352 

omission  of,  106 
A*— as,  so— as,  100 
Ascent  and  assent,  176 
Ask— past  is  asked,  36, 179,  182,  228 
Association,  errors  of,  235 
At  and  to,  90 
At  about— bad,  247 
At  hand— trite,  287 
Athletic  (not  athaletic),  179,  182 
Athletics,  number  of,  26 
Attack — no  such  form  as  attackted, 

249 

Auger  and  augur,  176,  196 
Aught  as  indefinite  pronoun,  63 
Aught,  naught,  and  ought,  74 
Auxiliary    verbs: 

defined,  352 

instead  of  subjunctive,  55,  56 
Awfully,  misuse  of,  242 

"Baby  blunder,"  15 

Back  of,  in  back  of,  92 

Bad  and  badly,  84 

Balance,  for  rest  or  remainder,  241 

Balance  in  a  sentence,  202,  231 

Bare  and  bear,  176 

Base  and  bass,  176 

Bdss — no  change  for  plural,  23 

Be: 

as  auxiliary  verb,  352 


INDEX 


379 


conjugation,  32,  33 
eight  simple  forms  of,  32 
followed  by  predicate  adjective, 

77 

imperative  of,  50 
subjunctive  conjugation,  51     . 
use  in  passive,  39,  40,  41 
use  in  progressive  forms,  33,  41 

Beat,  36,  38 

Because,  clauses  with,  124 

Before — either  preposition  or  con- 
junction, 99 

Beg,  as  used  in  letters,  281,  288 

Begin,  36,  38 

Beginning  a  theme,  234 

Behest,  distinguished  from  bequest, 
242 

Bern's — no  such  form,  61,  248 

Believing,  etc.,  in  letters,  289 

Berth  and  birth,  176 

Beside  and  besides,  176 

Besides — adverb,  97 

Between  and  among,  90,  91 

Bible,  capitalization  in  relation  to, 
160 

Bid,  36,  38 

Biennial — one  word,  166 

Blames  it  on,  92 

Blow— no  form  blowed,  36,  38,  248 

Body,  combinations  ending  in — one 

word,  166 

combinations  of,  as  indefinite  pro- 
nouns, 63,  64 

Body  of  a  letter,  280 

Born  (never  borned),  248 

Born  and  borne,  176 

Boundary  (not  boundry),  179 

Brackets,  140,  141 

Brake  and  break,  176> 

Break,  36 

Brethren  (not  brethern),  179 

Brevity,  undue,  in  letters,  292 

Bring,  36 

confused  with  take,  241 


no  such  form  as  brung,  36,  48 
Bunch,  misuse  of,  242 
Burst — no  such  forms  as  busted  or 

bursted,  36,  38,  248 
Business  correspondence : 

appearance  of,  264 

paragraphing,  208,  209 
Business,  the  growth  of,  263 

advantages  of  the  letter  in,  263 
Business  letter,  qualities  of  a  good, 

266-272 

Buying  letter,  the,  309,  312 
By — as  prefix  followed  by  hyphen, 

167 
By  and  to,  91 

Can,  as  auxiliary  verb,  352 
misused  for  may,  240 

Cannon — no  change  for  plural,  23 

Cannon  and  canon,  176,  196 

Canvas  and  canvass,  176,  196 

Capital  and  capitol,  176 

Capitalization,  rules  for,  159-162 

Capitalize,  failure  to,  at  beginning 
of  sentence,  14,  228 

Case: 

of  nouns,  27-29 
of  pronouns,  66-72 
defined,  352 

Case-uses,  list  of,  353 

Casualty  (not  casuality),l79, 186, 248 

Cataclysm,  distinguished  from  cate- 
chism, 241 

Catch  (not  ketch,  ketcher,  etc.),  184, 
186,  249 

Cause,  conjunctions  denoting,  96 

Ceiling  and  sealing,  177 

Checks,  bank,  314,  366,  367 

Childhood — one  word,  166 

Children  (not  childern),  179,  182 

Choir  and  quire,  177 

Choose  and  chose,  177 

Chord  and  cord,  177 

Circular  letter,  the,  329 


880 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


City  names,  best  not  abbreviated, 

277 

Classification  by  punctuation,  138 
Clauses: 

asH'HKMt-  in  the  sentence,  12 

defined,  12,  353 

dependent  or  subordinate,  13 

in  a  series,  117,  118 

independent  or  coordinate,  14 

infinitive.  71,  72 

misplaced,  104 

principal,  12 

unattached,  108 
Clearness,  the  need  of,  103 
Cleft  infinitive,  60 
Coarse  and  course,  177 
Code,  the  telegraphic,  336 
Collection  letter,  the,  332-335 
Collective  nouns,  number  of  verbs 

with,  57,  58 

Colloquial  carelessness,  248 
Colon: 

after  "Dear  Sir,"  etc.,  134,  277 

in  classification,  139 

uses  of,  133,  134 

when    to    capitalize    first    word 

after,  159 

Colonel  and  kernel,  177 
Come,  36,  38 

"Comma  blunder/'  15,  202 
Commas: 

after  yes,  no,  'oh,  128 

in  classification,  139 

in  compound  sentences,  117 

in  connection  with  quotations,  128 

in  dates,  addresses,  etc.,  129 

in  headings  of  letters,  277 

inside  quotation  mark  at  end  of 
quotation,  143 

to  avoid  ambiguity,  127 

to  indicate  omissions,  129 

to  mark  interruption  of  thought, 
120 

to  separate  words  in  series,  115 


to  set  off  appositives,  125 
to  set  off  non-restrictive  modi- 
fiers, 123 

to  set  off  words  of  address,  121 
Commercial  jargon,  243 
Committee  on  Grammatical   No- 
menclature, 27,  42,  62,  66,  68, 
123 

Common  gender,  357 
Common  noun,  353 
Comparative  degree: 
defined,  353 
forms  of,  77,  78 
'  in  dealing  with  two,  79 
Comparison: 
application  of,  78 
conjunctions  denoting,  96 
definition,  77,  353 
double,  79 
of  adjectives,  77-80 
of  adverbs,  78 
Complected,  248 
Complement  defined,  353 
Complement  and  compliment,    177, 

196 
Complementary  for  complimentary, 

241 
Complete  thought,  sentence  must 

express,  10 

Complete  words,  failure  to  write,  228 
Completeness,  a  quality  needed  in 

business  letters,  267-269 
Complex  sentence,  13,  354 
Complex-compound    sentence,    14, 

354 
Composition: 

need  of  practice  in,  197 

oral,  197-201 

organizing  a,  208  flf.,  217 

paragraphing  in,  210 

subjects  for,  200,  201,  205-207, 

215,  216,  218-226,  255-261 
written,  201  flf. 
Compound  adjective,  167,  354 


INDEX 


381 


Compound  noun: 

defined,  354 

plural  of,  24 

possessive  of,  28 
Compound  predicate,  13,  354 
Compound  prepositions,  90,  354 
Compound  sentence,  14,  117,  130, 

354 
Compound  subject,  13,  66,  355 

agreement  of,  with  verb,  58 
Compound  words,  165-167 
Concession: 

clause  of,  355 

conjunctions  denoting,  96 

subjunctive  in  clauses  of,  53,  54 
Conclusion  of  a  letter,  281,  282 
Condensation  illustrated,  257 
Condition: 

clause  of,  355 

conjunctions  denoting,  96 

subjunctive  in  clauses  of,  53,  54 
Confusion  of  past  tense  and  past 

participle,  37 

Conjugation  of  verbs,  31-35,  50-52 
Conjunctions: 

adverbs  distinguished  from,  97 

coordinating,  96 

correlative,  98,  355 

denned,  96,  355 

not  inflected,  20,  96 

subordinating,  96 
Conjunctive  adverbs,  96 
Connection,  genitive  of,  29,  355 
Consequently — adverb,  97 

semicolon  before,  131 
Contents    carefully    noted — trite    in 

letters,  281,  288 

Contrary  to  fact,  clauses  of  condi- 
tion, 54 
Conversation: 

as  remedy  for  trouble  with  ante- 
cedent, 110 

the  opportunity  of,  197 

the  paragraphing  of,  214,  215,  234 


Coordinate  clauses,  14 
Coordinating  conjunctions,  96 
Cordially  yours,  282 
Correlative    conjunctions    require 

parallel  constructions,  98 
Correspondent,  needs  of  a,  265 
Council  and  counsel,  177,  196 
Courtesy  in  business  letters,  271, 272 
Creak  and  creek,  177 
Currant  and  current,  177 
Curse  (not  cuss),  36,  38,  248 
Customary  action,  would  to  express, 

49 

Dangling  participial  constructions, 

107 

Dash,  uses  of,  135-139 
Date,  needed  in  a  letter,  276 

manner  of  writing,  129,  277 
Dative  case,  66,  353 
Dear  Sir,  etc.,  as  salutations,  280 
Debate,  subjects  for,  201 
Deceased  and  diseased,  177 
Decorative  heading,  the,  277,  278 
Deer — no  change  for  plural,  23 
Definite  instructions,  writing,  217  ff. 
Degree  of  adjectives  and  adverbs, 

77-80 
Deleted,  distinguished  from  depleted,, 

241 

Demonstrative  adjectives  and  pro- 
nouns, 73,  356 
Desert  and  dessert,  177 
Desire,  shall  and  will  to  express,  47 
Determination,    shall   and   will   to 

express,  47 

Device  and  devise,  177,  196 
Dickens,  letter  to  Knowles,  316 
Dictionary,  use  of  the,  156, 163, 165, 

250 

Dieresis,  use  instead  of  hyphen,  167 
Different,  idiom  with,  93 
Direct  and  indirect  questions,  145, 

358 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


Direct  and  indirect  quotation,  111. 

234,358 

Direct  object,  11,  69,  360 
Directness, '  desirable   in   business 

letters,  266,  267 
Disremember,  248 
Dive,  36,  38, 248 
Division  of  words  at  ends  of  lines, 

•  162-164 
Do,  36,  38 
Do  and  did  in  emphatic  verb  forms, 

33,  34,  41,  352 
Don't  for  doesn't,  59 
Doc. — impolite  abbreviation,  248 
Double  narrative,  229,  230,  356 
Double  negative,  84,  356 
Double  possessive,  356 
Doubt  expressed  by  question  mark, 

145 

Doubtlessly— bud,  248 
Draft,  the  bank,  314,  367 
Drag,  36,  88 
Draw,  36 
Drink,  36,  38 
Drive,  forms  of,  41,  42 
Drown — no  such  form  as  drownded, 

249 

Due  to,  erroneous  use  of,  93 
Duly,  usually  needless  in  letters,  288 
Dyeing  and  dying,  177 

e,  the  sound  of,  184 
Each,  as  indefinite  pronoun,  63 
agreement  of  verb  with  subjects 

modified  by,  59 
Each  other  and  one  another,  74 
Eat,  36 

ed — often  not  a  syllable,  163 
"Eddies"  in  the  sentence,  120 
Editorial,  the,  259,  260 
Effect  and  affect,  176 
e.  g.,  semicolon  before,  132 
Either,  as  indefinite  pronoun,  63 
Ellipses — a  row  of  periods,  144 


Else— posseasive/'somebody  else's," 

etc.,  74 

em-dash,  the,  137 
Emigrant  and  immigrant,  177 
Emigration  and  immigration,  177 
Emphasis,  repetition  for,  229 
Emphatic  forms  of  verb,  33,  34,  356 

•signs  of,  41 
Employer,   the   stenographer   and 

the,  274 

en-dash,  the,  137 
English,  importance  of  good,  9 
Enunciation,  182 
Envelope,  the,  283,  284 
Equally  CM— bad,  247 
Errors,    types  of.    14-16,    103-110, 

227-235 

Esteemed—  in  letters,  281,  288 
etc. — not  part  of  quotation,  141 
Ever,  combinations  ending  in — one 

word,  16C 

wrong  wit !i  rarely  or  seldom,  85 
Everlasting—one  word,  166 
Every,  agreement  of  verb  with  sub- 
jects modified  by,  59 
Everybody,  as  antecedent.  •  •  1 
Every   one  as   indefinite   pronoun, 

63,64 

Every  Jimer-two  words,  160 
Except — not  now  used  as  conjunc- 
tion, 99 

distinguished  from  accept,  176 
Exclamation  mark,  128,  111 
Exclamation,  nominative  of,  356 
Expletives,  356 

Express  money  orders,  314,  338 
Expressive  English,  203,  204 
Extra — as  prefix  followed  by  hy- 
phen, 167 
Extravagant  use  of  words,  242 

Facilitating  for  felicitating,  241 
Facts  in  newspaper  writing,  253  ff. 
Faint  and  feint,  177 


INDEX 


383 


Faithfully  yours,  282 

Faker  and  fakir,  177 

Familiarity  in  letters,  291 

Farewell — one  word,  166 

Farther  and  further,  177,  196 

Faults,  in  American  speech,  181 
in  planning  a  theme,  212-214 

Favor,  as  used  in  letters,  281,  288 

Favor,  request  for  a,  307 

February  (not  Febuary),  179,   182, 
187 

Feel,  when  followed  by  adjective,  82 

Fellow,  in  compounds  followed  by 
hyphen,  167 

Feminine  gender,  22,  356 

Fewer,  distinguished  from  less,  85 

Figures,  use  of,  169,  170,  276,  280 

Finally  and  finely,  177 

Fine,  misuse  of,  242 

Firm  names,  possessive  of,  28 

Fish — singular  and  plural  alike,  23 

Fix,  misuse  of,  242 

"Flat"  adverbs,  83 

Flee,  36,  38 

Flow,  36,  38 

Fly,  36 

may  be  transitive  or  intransitive, 
43 

Folding  a  letter,  284 

Follow-up  campaign,  the,  331 

Follow-up  letter,  the,  329 

For — either  preposition  or  conjunc- 
tion, 99 

Foreign  plurals,  24,  25 

Form  letter,  the,  328 
method  of  printing,  330 

Formally  and  fornerly,  177 

Former,  the,  and  the  latter,  75 

Forthcoming — one  word,  166 

Forward  (noifoward),  179 

Fragmentary    expressions    as    sen- 
tences, 10 

Friend  John,  etc. — bad  salutation, 
280 


Funny,  misuse  of,  243 

Further  and  furthermore — adverbs, 

97 

Future  perfect  tense,  32 
Future  tense,  31,  33,  357 

shall  and  will  in,  46-48 

signs  of,  41,  42 

Gait  and  gate,  177 
Gender: 

denned,  357 

in  pronouns,  65 

negligible  in  nouns,  22 
Genitive  case: 

form  of,  27,  28 

same  as  possessive,  27 

use  of,  28,  29 
Gentlemen — as  salutation  in  letter, 

280 

Gents—bad,  248 
Gerund: 

denned,  357 

distinguished  from  participle,  68 

possessive  with,  68 

unattached,  108 
Gilt  and  guilt,  177 
Give,  36 
Go,  36,  37 

God,  names  for,  capitalized,  160 
Good  and  well,  84 
Government    (not   goverment),    179, 

182,  187  * 

"Grafted"  sentences,  227 
Grammar  and  everyday  usage,  9 
Grammatical  Nomenclature,  Joint 
Committee  on,  27,  42,  62,  66, 
68,  123 

Grammatical  terms  defined,  351-365 
Grievous  (not  grevious),  179,  187 
Grisly  and  grizzly,  177,  196 
Grow,  36,  38,  248 

Habitual  action,  would  to  express,  49 
Hackneyed  expressions,  a  list  of,  244 
Had  ought,  61,  246 


VTIONAL  ENGLISH 


Haint— no  B\ich  word,  248 

Half,   in  compounds  followed  by 

hyphen,  167 
Hand,  compounds  with,  24 s 

at  hand  and  to  hand  in  letters,  287 

hand  you  in  letters,  281,  288 
Hang,  36,  38,  196 
II  inking  participle,  107 
Hate,  misuse  of,  243 
Have: 

as  auxiliary  verb,  352 

of  misused  for,  36,  61 

subjunctive  of,  51 

tense  forms,  32 

use  in  perfect  tenses,  32,  41 
He  to  refer  to  uncertain  gender,  64 
Heading  in  a  business  letter,  276-278 
Heal  and  heel,  177 
Healthy  for  healthful,  241 
Hear  and  here,  177 
tfeo/,36 

no  such  form  as  het,  249 
Heavy  style  in  letters,  293 
Height  (not  heighth),  179 
Hence—  adverb,  97 

semicolon  needed  before,  131 
Herewith — overworked    in    letters, 

289 

Hew  and  ht€,  177 
Hisself—no  such  word,  74,  249 
Historical  present — imadvisable,  234 
History  (not  histry),  182,  187 
Hoard  and  horde,  177 
Homonyms,  a  list  of,  176-179 
Hoping,  etc.,  in  letters,  289 
Horribly,  misuse  of,  243 
Horrid,  misuse  of,  243 
However — adverb,  97 

semicolon  needed  before,  131 
Hundred  (not  hunderd),  182 
Hyphen: 

use  in  compound  words,  165-167 

use  in  dividing  a  word  at  end  of 
line,  164 


7:  capitalized  when  used  as  a  \v  ml, 
159 

when  better  than  we,  294 

when  not  better  than  we,  308 

wrongly  omitted,  16,  'J 
I,  the  sound  of,  184 
/  am,  in  concluding  letters,  289 
Idea  (not  idee),  182  ' 

Idiom,  29,  83,  90,  92-94,  357 
Idiomatic  use  of  prepositions,  92-94 
t.  e.,  semicolon  before,  132 
//  and  whether,  100 
//,  subjunctive  in  clauses  with,  53, 
54 

restrictive    and     non-restrictive 

.    clauses  with,  123 
Illogical  arrangement,  213,  214 
Illogical  phrasing,  233 
Illy— no  such  word,  248 
Immigrant  and  emigrant,  177 
Immigration  and  emigration,  177 
Impassable  and  impassible,  178,  196 
Imperative  mood,  50,  357 
Impression,    first — importance    in 

letters,  319 
In  and  into,  91 
Inanimate  objects,  names  of,  rarely 

made  possessive,  28 
Inasmuch— one  word,  166 
Incidentally  (not  incidently),  179 
Incongruous  ideas,  235 
Indeed — adverb,  97 

semicolon  needed  before,  131 

when  set  off  by  commas,  121 
Indefinite  adjectives,  64,  357 
Indefinite  pronouns: 

list  of,  63 

number  in,  63,  64 

possessive  of  else  forms,  74 
Indention  of  paragraphs,  208 
Indicative  mood,  50,  358 

in  if  and  though  clauses,  53,  54 
Indirect  object,  12,  70,  358 
Indirect  questions,  145,  358 


INDEX 


385 


Indirect  quotation,  141,  234,  358 
Indirect  style  in  letters,  293 
Individuality    needed    in   business 

letters,  269-271 
Individual,  application  to,  in  letters, 

325 
Infinitive: 

clause,  71,  358 

objective  subject  of,  71 

phrase,  358 

split  or  cleft,  60,  364 

to  as  sign  of,  41 

used  as  noun,  adjective,  adverb, 
358 

without  to,  72 
Inflection: 

denned,  20 

of  adjectives,  77 

of  adverbs,  78 

of  nouns,  22-28 

of  pronouns,  62  ff. 

of  verbs,  31  ff. 

Information,  letters  asking,  306 
Ingenious  and  ingenuous,  178,  196, 

241 

Inhuman  and  inhumane,  241 
Inside — one  word,  166 
Inside  of,  94 

In  spite  of — three  words,  166 
Inst.  in  letters,  289 
Instead — one  word,  166 
Instructions,  writing  definite,  217  ff. 
Intensive  pronouns,  74,  359 
Interjections,  19,  20,  359 
Interrogative  adjective,  359 
Interrogative  adverb,  359 
Interrogative  pronoun,  65,  359 
Interruption  of  thought,  119 
Into  and  in,  91 
Intransitive  verbs,  43,  365 
Introduction,  usually  needless,  234 

letter  of,  305 
Inverted  order,  359 
ion — usually  not  a  syllable,  163 


Irony,    indicated    by    exclamation 

mark,  145 

Irregular  comparison,  78 
Irregular  verbs,  35,  36,  363 
Irrelevant  (not  irrevelant),  179,  182 
Italics,  uses  of,  142,  413 
It  is  me,  67 
Itself — one  word,  74 

Japanese — no  change  for  plufal,  23 

Kernel  and  colonel,  177 

Kind  and  kindly — trite  in  letters, 

289 

Kind  0'  and  sort  o',  85 
Kind  of  a,  etc.,  85 
Kinds  of  sentences,  13 
Knew  and  new,  178 
Know,  36 
Know  and  no,  178 

Laboratory  (not  labratory),  179,  182 
Larynx  (not  larnyx),  179,  182 
Later  and  latter,  178 
Latter,  the,  75 
Lay,  36,  38,  45 

layed — a  wrong  spelling,  45 
Lead  and  led,  178 
"Lead,"  the,  in  newspaper  writing, 

253  ff. 

Learn,  misused  for  teach,  240 
Leave — wrong  after  just  as,  had  as, 

etc.,  248 

Lengthways — bad,  248 
Less  and  fewer,  85 
Lessen  and  lesson,  178 
Lest,  subjunctive  in  clauses  with,  53 
Let,  uses  as  auxiliary,  55,  352 

with  infinitive,  72 
Letter: 

advantages  in  business,  263 

body  of  the,  280 
«  folding  the,  284 

form  of  the,  274-285 


981 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


language  of  the,  287-295 

qualities  of  good  business,  266-272 

the  "mean,"  316 

the  writer  of  a,  264-266 
Letter  acknowledging  orders,  312 

type  letter,  313 
Letter,  adjustment,  315 

exercises  on,  317 

t\p(»  Irtt.T,   .".I.". 

Letter  of  application,  297 

content  of,  298 

exercises  on,  302 

stationery  of,  298 

type  letter,  299 
Letter,  buying,  309 

exercises  on,  311 

form  of,  310 

type  letter,  311 
Letter,  the  circular,  329 
Letter,  collection,  332-335 
Letter,  the  follow-up,  329-332 
letter,  the  form,  328 
Letter  of  introduction,  305 

type  letter,  305 
Letter  of  recommendation,  303 

direct,  304 

exercises  on,  305 

open  letter,  303 

type  letter,  304 
Letter,  sales,  318-326 

application  to  individual,  324 

closing  the  deal,  325 

description  in,  320-323 

divisions  of,  318 

exercises  in,  321,  323,  327 

getting  attention  in,  318 

transition  from  first  sentence,  320 

type  letter,  326 
Letters  asking  information,  306 

refusal  of  request,  308 

request  for  favor,  307 

routine,  306 
Letters  transmitting  money,  313 

type  letter,  314 


Library  (not  libary),  179,  182 

Lie,  36,  38,  45 

Lightened  (not  lightninged),  179 

Like — not  a  conjunction,  100,  248 

Likewise — adverb,  97 

Limiting  adjective,  359 

Lincoln  letters,  two,  296,  297 

Linking  verb,  359 

Loathe,  misuse  of,  243 

Look,  when  followed  by  adjective, 

82 

Looky  and  lookit,  248 
Loose  participles,  107 
Loose  and  lose,  38,  178 
Low,  36,  38 
Love,  misuse  of,  243 
ly,  adverbs  not  ending  in,  83 

Mad,  misuse  of,  242 

Magazine  article,  condensing  the, 

261,262 
Magazines,  251 
Margin  in  letters,  274-276 
Marten  and  martin,  178 
Masculine  gender,  359 
May,  uses  as  auxiliary,  55,  56,  352 
May  and  can,  240 
"Mean"  letter,  the,  316 
Meat,  meet,  and  mete,  178 
Meningitis  (not  mengitis),  179 
Midnight — one  word,  166 
Might  as  auxiliary  verb,  352 
Militarism  (not  militaryism),  179 
Military  orders,  shall  and  will  in,  47 
Miner  and  minor,  178 
Mischievous  (not  mischievious),  179, 

188 
Misplaced  words,  phrases,  clauses, 

104 

Misspelled  words,  lists  of,  174-179 
Modifiers: 

clauses  as,  12 

confusion  in  number  due  to,  57 

definition,  11 


INDEX 


387 


should  be  near  words  modified, 
104 

Money,  letters  transmitting,  313 
Money  orders,  314,  368 
Mood  in  verbs,  50,  359 
More,  as  indefinite  pronoun,  63 

use  in  comparison,  78 
Moreover: 

adverb,  not  subordinating   con- 
junction, 97 

one  word,  166 

semicolon  needed  before,  131 
Most,  as  indefinite  pronoun,  63 

use  in  comparison,  78 
Most  and  almost,  85,  88 
Much,   singular   as   indefinite  pro- 
noun, 63 

Muchly — no  such  word,  249 
Must,  used  as  auxiliary,  55,  352 

Name,  addressee's  to  be  written  as 

.  he  writes  it,  279 
Namely,  semicolon  before,  132 
Narrative,  double,  229,  230 
Natural  order,  360 
Natural  superlatives,  80,  360 
Naught,  singular  as  indefinite  pro- 
noun, 63,  74 

Near  by — two  words,  166 
Negative  assertions,  emphatic  verb 

forms  in,  34 

Negatives,  double,  84,  356 
Neither,  to  be  followed  by  nor,  98 

singular  as  indefinite  pronoun,  63 
Nevertheless: 

adverb,  97 

one  word,  166 

semicolon  needed  befors,  131 

when  set  off  by  commas,  121 
New  and  knew,  178 
News  items,  practice  in  writing,  255, 

256,  259 

Newspaper,  importance  of  the,  253 
Newspaper  writing,  253  ff. 


News  "story,"  the,  256-259 
Niagara  (not  Niagra},  179 
Nice,  misuse  of,  242 
Nickname — one  word,  166 
No  and  know,  178 
No  one — two  words,  166 
No,  agreement  of  verb  with  sub- 
jects modified  by,  59 

punctuation  with,  128 
Nominative  (not  nomitive),  179,  182, 

188 

Nominative  uses  of  pronoun,  66,  67 
Non-restrictive     expressions,     122, 

363 

Nor,  agreement  of  verb  with  sub- 
jects connected  by,  59 

should  follow  neither,  98 
Not  all,  error  in  separation  of,  104 
Notwithstanding — one  word,  166 
Nouns: 

abstract,  22,  351 

case  of,  27-29 

collective,  57,  58,  353 

compound,  24,  28,  165  ff. 

gender  of,  22,  357 

inflection  of,  22 

ing  forms  as,  22 

number  of,  23-26 

person  in,  22 

predicate,  12,  66,  362 
Nowadays — one  word,  166 
Nowheres,  etc.,  249 
Number: 

agreement  of  verb  and  subject 
in,  57-59 

errors  in,  63 

of  nouns,  23-26 
-  of  pronouns,  63-65 

of  verbs,  34,  35 

Numbers,  spelling  out,  168-170 
Numerals,  360 

0,  capitalize  when  a  word,  159 
not  followed  by  comma,  128 


888 


VOCATIONAL  KNCLISH 


o,  the  sound  of,  1  s  i 
Object: 

becomes   subject   in   change   to 
passive,  40 

clause  as,  12,  14 

direct,  11,69,71,360 

errors  in,  66,  69 

indirect,  11,70,358 

retained,  40,  363 

secondary,  363 
Objective  complement,  351 
Objective  uses  of  pronoun,  69-72 
<  >Mi  nut  ion,  should  to  express,  49 

subjunctive    in    clauses    to    ex- 
press, 53 

Oblige — overworked  in  letters,  289 
Obscure  reference,  109 
Observance  and  observation,  241 
Occasionally  (not  occasionly),  179, 

182 
Of — redundant  in  off  of,  etc.,  94 

wrong  in  place  of  have,  36,  61 
Ojfo/,94,  247 
Offhanded— bad,  248 
oh,  not  capitalized,  159 

punctuation  after,  128 
Omission  of  necessary  words,  106, 

235 

Once,  249 

One,  combinations  of,   as  antece- 
dents, 64 

excessive  use  of,  232 

singular   as   indefinite   pronoun, 

63,232 

One  another,  74 
On  to— two  words,  166 
Onto  and  upon,  91 
oo,  the  sound  of,  183 
Or,  agreement  of  verb  with  sub- 
jects connected  by,  59 
Ordering  letter,  a  correct,  311 
Orders,  letters  acknowledging,  312 
Organization,  the  need  of,  208 
Ornery— bad,  248 


Other,  in  comparison,  79 
Ought: 

had  improper  with,  61 

should  equivalent  to,  49 
Our  Mr.,  in  letters,  290 
<  >  it  line,  making  an,  212 
U'ltttntctt    -urn-  won  I,   HM 
Overly — no  such  word,  249 

Panoramic,  distinguished  from  pan- 
tomimic, 241 
Panto— bad  form,  248 
Paragraph,  the: 
in  business  correspondence,  208, 

209,267 

in  conversation,  214,  234 
in  news  items,  156 
in  ordinary  composition,  210, 214, 

215 
Parallel    construction    in    similar 

part*  of  a  sentence,  98,  202,  231 
Parentheses,  139,  140 
Parenthetical    expressions,    dashes 

for,  136 
Participial  constructions,  at  ends  of 

1.  tiers,  281 

Participial  phrase,  360 
Participle: 
"dangling",  107 
definition,  360 

distinguished  from  gerund,  68 
ing  as  sign  of  present,  41 
past,  as  one  of  principal  parts, 

35,37 
restrictive    and    non-rot  ri<ti\c. 

123 

use  in  passive,  39,  40 
use  in  progressive,  33,  39 
Particularly   (not   particurly),    179, 

182 
Partner    (not    pardner),    179,    188, 

248 

Parts  of  speech,  19,  361 
Party — wrong  for  person,  248 


INDEX 


389 


Passive  voice: 

change  from  active  to,  39,  40, 108, 
230,  365 

how  distinguished  from  progres- 
sive forms,  39 

often  indirect  and  awkward,  40, 
294 

sign  of,  41 
Past  participle: 

one  of  principal  parts,  35,  361 

use  in  passive  voice,  39 
Past  perfect  tense,  32,  361 
Past  tense,  31,  33,  361 

one  of  principal  parts,  35 
Pay,  36,  38 
Peace  and  piece,  178 
Pendant  and  pendent,  178 
Perambulate  (not  preambulate) ,  179 
Per  cent  — two  words,  166 
Percolator  (not  perculator),  179 
Perfect  tenses,  31,  32,  361 

signs  of,  41,  42 

Perhaps,  not  always  set  off  by  com- 
mas, 121 
Period : 

after  abbreviation,  277 

at  end  of  sentence,  113,  144 

inside  quotation  mark  at  end  of 
quotation,  143 

special  uses,  144 
Perpetrate  and  perpetuate,  241 
Person : 

agreement  of  verb  with  subject 
in,  59 

change  of,  232 

error  in,  62 

in  nouns,  22 

in  pronouns,  62 

in  verbs,  34,  35 
Per  son, 'a — singular,  63 
Person  addressed  in  a  letter,  278-280 
Personal  pronouns,  62  ff.,  109,  232, 

361 
Personally  (not  personly),  179 


Personified  qualities,  etc.,  capital- 
ized, 160 

Perspiration  (not  prespiration),  179 
Phrases: 

defined,  12,  361 

in  a  series,  117 

misplaced,  104 

unattached,  108 

verb  phrases,  55 

with  prepositions,  90 
Phrasing,  illogical,  233 
Pillar  and  pillow,  178 
Place — not  a  proper  adverbial  end- 
ing, 87 
Plan,   making  a,   for  composition, 

211-214,  217,  218 
Plurals,  how  formed,  23-26 

possessive  (genitive),  27,  28 
Poetry,  capitalize  first  word  of  every 

line  of,  159 

Point  of  view,  change  in,  107,  108 
Points  of  compass,  not  capitalized, 

160 

Pompous  style,  243 
Positive  degree,  77,  78,  80,  353 
Possessive  adjectives,  66,  68,  361 
Possessive  forms: 

as  subjects,  objects,  etc.,  68 

of  nouns,  27,  28 

of  pronouns,  66 

undesirable    for    inanimate    ob- 
jects, 28 

uses  of,  28,  29,  68 

with  gerunds,  68,  69 
Possessive  pronoun,  66,  361 

apostrophe  wrong  in,  68 
Postage  stamps  in  payment,  313 
Postal  orders,  314,  368 
Posted,  misused  for  informed,  241 
Precede  and  proceed,  178 
Predicate : 

agreement  with  subject,  57  -60 

compound,  13 

definition,  10,  361 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


elements  of,  10,  11 

necessity  of,  10 

wrongly  omitted,  16 
Predicate  adjective,  12,  77,  81,  361 
Predicate  noun  or  pronoun,  12,  66, 
71,  362 

clause  as,  12,  14 

confusion  in  number  due  to,  57 
Predicate  verb,  11,  362 
Prefixes,  list  of,  150 
Preposition,  the: 

at  end  of  sentence,  70 

definition,  90 

distinguished   from   conjunction, 
99 

idiomatic  uses  of,  92-94 

not  inflected,  20,  90 

redundant  uses  of,  94,  95 

with  pronoun,  70 
Present  participle,  33,  39,  41,  362 
Present  perfect  tense,  31, 32, 33, 362 
Present  tense,  31,  33,  362 

as  one  of  principal  parts,  35 
Preventive  (not  preventative),  248 
Principal  and  principle,  178, 196 
Principal  clauses,  subjunctive  in,  52 
Principal  parts  of  verb,  35 
Principal    words    of    subject    and 

predicate,  11 

Probably  (not  probly),  182 
Prof. — impolite  abbreviation,  248 
Progressive  tense  forms,  33,  362 

distinguished  from  passive,  39 

signs  of,  41 

Promises,  shall  and  will  in,  47 
Pronouns: 

case  of,  66 

confusing  use  of,  232 

definition,  362 

demonstrative,  73,  356 

disagreement  with  antecedent  in 
number,  232 

gender  of.  65 

indefinite,  63, 357 


inflection  of,  62,  63,  66 

intensive,  74,  359 

interrogative,  63,  65,  359 

nominative  uses  of,  66,  67 

number  of,  63-65 

objective  uses  of,  69-72 

obscure  reference  by,  109 

person  of,  62,  63 

personal,  62  ff.,  109,  232,  361 

possessive  uses  of,  68 

predicate,  12,  66,  362 

reflexive,  74,  363 

relative,  62,  63,  65,  71,  363 
Pronunciation  (not  pronounciatiori)  < 

179 

Pronunciation  practice,  185-189 
Proper  adjectives,  capitalized,  160, 

362 
Proper  nouns,  capitalized,  160,  362 

in  «,  possessive  of,  28 
Prophecy  and  prophesy,  178 
Propose  and  purpose,  178,  196 
Propriety,   subjunctive   in   clauses 

expressing,  53 
Prox.  in  letters,  241,  289 
Punctuality    in    business    letter 

writing,  271 
Punctuate,  why,  113 
Punctuation,  113-148,  277 
Purity  of  vowel  sound,  183 
Purpose: 

conjunctions  denoting,  96 

subjunctive  in  clauses  of,  53 
Purpose  and  propose,  241 

Quarter,  in  compounds,  167 
Question  mark,  145 
Questions: 

emphatic  verb  forms  in,  33,  34 
on  chapters  of  this  book,  21,  30, 
61,  75,  88,  102,  111,  148,  157, 
179,   190,  207,  216,  239,  251, 
272,  286,  295,  337 
shall  and  will  in.  47 


INDEX 


391 


Quiet  and  quite,  178,  196 

Quire  and  choir,  177 

Quotation  marks,  141-143,  214 
other  marks  in  connection  with, 
143,  144 

Quotations,  141-143 

direct  and  indirect,  141,  234 
how  punctuated,  128,  141-144 
when  first  word  is  capitalized,  159 

Rabbet  and  rabbit,  178 

Railroad — one  word,  166 

Raise,  46 

Rarely  ever — wrong,  85 

Reading  as  aid  to  vocabulary,  250 

"Ready  Letter  Writer,"  the,  269,  270 

Real  and  reel,  178 

Real  for  very,  86,  88 

Reason,  conjunctions  denoting,  96 

Receipt  and  recipe,  178 

Recent  date,  in  letters,  290 

Recognition  of  verb  forms,  41 

Recognize  (not  reconize},  179 

Recommendation,  letter  of,  303-305 

Redundant  adverbs,  95 

prepositions,  94 
Reference,  obscure,  109 
Reflexive  pronouns,  74,  363 
Regular  verbs,  35,  363 
Relative  adverbs,  96,  363 
Relative  pronoun: 

definition,  363 

gender  of,  65 

never  in  apposition  with  antece- 
dent, 71 

relation  to  antecedent,  62,  63 

with  uncertain  antecedent,  110 
Repetition  (not  repitition),  179 
Repetition: 

of  thought,  244 

of  words,  229 

Representative  (not  representive) ,  182 
Resolved,  capitalize  first  word  after, 
159 


Respectfully  in  conclusion  of  a  letter, 

282 

Restrictive  expressions,  122,  363 
Result,  conjunctions  denoting,  96 
Retained  object,  40,  363 
Rewrite — one  word,  166 
Ride,  36 

Ridiculous  (not  rediculous),  179 
Right,  rite,  and  write,  178 
Ring,  36 
Rise,  46 

Road,  rode,  and  rowed,  178 
Roman  numerals,  no  periods  after, 

144 

Root  syllables,  151-153 
Roundabout  expression,  245 
Run,  36 

tense  forms  of,  31-33 

Sacrilegious  (not  sacreligious) ,  179 
Said,  legal  use  bad  in  letters,  290 
Sales  letter,  the,  318-328 
Salutation  of  a  letter,  280 
Same,  the,  as  used  in  letters,  281,  290 
Say — "I  says"  error,  59 
Schoolboy- — one  word,  166 
Schoolmaster — one  word,  166 
School  teacher — two  words,  166 
Sealing  and  ceiling,  177 
Seasons,  names  of,  not  capitalized, 

160 

Secondary  object,  363 
Secondhanded — bad,  248 
See,  36 

the  "I  seen"  error,  37,  38 
Seem,  when  followed  by  adjective, 

82 

Seldom  ever — wrong,  85,  246 
Self: 

as  prefix,  followed  by  hyphen,  167 

combinations     ending     in  —  one 
word,  166 

pronouns  in,  74 
Self-confidence,  the  need  of,  198 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


Semicolon— one  word,  166 
Semicolons: 

between  word  groups  broken  by 
commas,  132 

first  word  after,  not  capitalized, 
159 

in  classification,  139 

in  compound  sentences,  118,  130 

uses  of,  130-132 
Senses,  verbs  of  the,  followed  by 

adjectives,  82 
Sentence: 

complex,  13,  354 

complex-compound,  14,  354 

compound,  14,  117,  354 

failure  to  make  a,  227 

first  word  capitalized,  159,  228 

"grafted,"  227 

necessity  of,  10 

requirements  for  a,  1C 

simple,  13,  364 
Sentence  errors,  10,  14-16,  97,  202, 

228 
Sentence  struct  un: 

errors  in,  14-16,  227-235 

in  letters,  281 

Separate  (not  seperate),  182 
Series,  commas  for  words  in  a,  115 
Set,  37,  43,  44 

Set  forms  in  letters,  265,  267,  269 
Shall  and  will,  41,  46-50,  352 
Sheep,  singular  and  plural  alike,  23 
Shine,  37 

Should  and  would,  48-50,  56,  352 
Show  (v.),  37,  38 
Show  (n.),  misuse  of,  242 
Sign  of  infinitive,  41 
Signature,  the,  282 
Signs,  verb,  40 
Simple  sentence,  13,  364 
Simple  style  in  writing,  202 
Since — either  preposition   or   con- 
junction, 99 
Sincerely  yours,  282 


Sing,  37 
Singulars  in  «,  26 

possessive  forms  of,  28 
Sit,  37,  43,  44 
Slang,  143,  247,  248 
Sleight  and  slight,  178 
Smell,  when  followed  by  adjective, 

82 
So: 

adverb,  97 

semicolon  before,  131 
So— as,  100 
Some  and  somewhat,  86 
Somebody  else's,  74 
Some  day — two  words,  166 
Some  one  as  indefinite  pronoun,  63 
Sometime  and  some  time,  166 
Sometimes — one  word,  166 
Somewhat — one  word,  166 
Sorto',  85 
Sound,  when  followed  by  adjective, 

82 

Sow,  37,  38 
Speak,  37 
Specialty     (not     speciality),      179, 

248 

Species — no  change  for  plural,  23 
Speech,  faults  in  American,  181 

parts  of,  19 
Spelling: 

common  errors  in,  174-179 

numbers,  168-170 

some  rules  of,  170-172 
Splendid,  misuse  of,  242 
Split  infinitive,  60,  364 
Spring,  37 

Stamps  in  payment,  313 
Stand,  when  followed  by  adjective, 

82 

State — overworked  for  say,  290 
Statements,  thai!  and  will  in,  47 
Stationary  and  stationery,  178 
Steal,  37,  38 

no  such  form  as  stold,  248 


INDEX 


393 


Stenographer,    the,    and   the    em- 
ployer, 274 

Still  as  conjunction,  131 
"Story,"  the  news,  256-259 
Strike,  39,  40,  42 

Studies,  names  of,  when  not  cap- 
italized, 160 

Studying  (not  studing),  179 
Subject: 

agreement  of  verb  with,  57-60 

clause  as,  12,  14 

compound,  13,  58 

definition,  10,  364 

extra  ("John  he"  error),  235 

in  nominative  case,  66 

in  objective  case,  71 

necessity  of,  10 

substantive,  11,  364 

wrongly  omitted,  16 
Subjects  for  composition,  200,  201, 
205-207,    215,    216,    218-226, 
255-261,  285,  286 
Subjunctive  mood: 

advantages  of,  56 

definition,  364 

forms  of,  50-52 

uses  of,  52-55 

verb  phrases  in  place  of,  55,  56 
Subordinate  clause: 

definition,  13,  364 

shall  and  will  in,  48 

should  and  would  in,  49 

subjunctive  in,  53,  54 

uses  of,  14 

wrongly  made  a  sentence,  16 
Subordinating     conjunctions,     96, 

355 
Substantive: 

defined,  364 

subject,  11 

Substitute  naming,  110 
Such  as  indefinite  pronoun,  63 
Sudden    interruptions    set    off    by 
dashes,  135 


Suffixes,  list  of,  151 
Suggestion  (not  sujjestion),  179 
Summarizing  statement,  set  off  by 

dash,  137 

Superfluous  (not  superfulous) ,  179 
Superfluous  details,  230,  245 
Superfluous  words,  246 
Superlative  degree,  78,  353 
Superlatives,  natural,  80 
Surname — one  word,  166 
Surprised  (not  suprised),  179,  182 
Suspicion — not  a  verb,  248 
Swim,  37,  38 
Swine,  23 
Swing,  37,  38 

Syllables,  division  into,  162-164 
Symmetry,    lack    of,    in    sentence 

structure,  202,  230,  231 

Take,  37 

confused  with  bring,  241 
Taste,  when  followed  by  adjective, 

82 

Teach  and  learn,  240 
Technical  words,  143,  351  ff. 
Telegram,  the,  335 

special  code,  336 
Telephone  courtesy,  199 
Temperament  (not  temperment),  179 
Tense : 

definition,  31,  364 

emphatic,  33,  41,  356 

future,  31,  33,  41,  46-48,  357 

illogical  changes  in,  233,  234 

past,  31,  33,  35,  361 

past  perfect,  32,  361 

perfect,  31,  32,  41 

present,  31,  33,  35,  362 

progressive,  33,  41,  362 

simple,  31 

Terribly,  misuse  of,  242 
Than — not  a  preposition,  93 

a  conjunction,  100 
Thanks,  proper  for  favor,  308 


BM 


VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 


That: 

improper  repetition  of,  246 

subjunctive  in  clauses  with,  53 

use  of,  63,  65,  73 
The,  omission  of,  106 
Their  and  there,  178 
Theirselves — wrong,  74 
rhcuie  writing: 

faults  in  planning  for,  212 

general  directions  for,  201,  202 

subjects  for,  200,  201,  205,  207, 

215,  216,  218-226,  255-261 
TAen—adverb,  97 

semicolon  needed  bet  ore,  131 
There  and  their,  86,  88,  178,  196 
Therefor  and  therefore,  178 
Therefore: 

adverb,  97 

semicolon  needed  before,  131 

when  set  off  by  commas,  1 J 1 
These  kind,  etc.,  74 
Thing,  combinations  ending  in,  63, 

166 

This  here,  etc.— bad.  71 
This— that,  these— those,  73 
Though,  subjunctive  in  clauses  with, 

53,54 

Thought,  repetition  of,  244 
Through  as  adjective,  86 
Throw,  37,  38 

no  such  forms  as  throwed  or  trun, 

248  / 

Ticklish  (not  tickelish),  189 
Till — either    preposition    or    con- 
junction, 99 

Time,  conjunctions  denoting,  96 
Title  of   person  addressed   to  be 

used  in  letters,  278,  279 
Titles,  capitals  in,  161 

quotation  marks  for,  142 
To: 

and  used  in  place  of,  99 

as  sign  of  infinitive,  41 

confused  with  at,  90 


confused  with  by,  91 
Too — adverb,  not  conjunction,  97 
To,  too,  and  two,  87,  88,  179,  196 
Today,  etc. — hyphen  unnecessary, 

166 

Together— no  hyphen,  166 
To  hand,  287 
Topic  sentence,  210,  211 
Tortuous,  misused  for  torturing,  241 
Transitive  verbs,  43,  364 
Trite  phrases,  243,  244 

in  letters,  281,  287-291 
Trout,  singular  and  plural  alike,  23 
Truly,  not  capitalized  in  conclusion 

of  letter,  282 

Trusting,  etc.,  in  letters,  289 
Two,  indicated  b>  comparison,  79 
Types  of  errors  in  school  themes, 

227-235 

Typewriting  style  in  letters,  281 
Typewritten  signatures,  283 

«,  the  sound  of,  183 

Uli.  in  letters,  289 

Uncertainty,  subjunctive  in  clauses 
of,  53/54 

Unbeknown—bad,  248 

Under  separate  cover,  290 

"Understood"  words,  105 

Unkempt,  misuse  of,  242 

Unless,  use  of,  99 

Until — either  preposition  or  con- 
junction, 99 

Up  as  different  parts  of  speech,  19 
redundant  uses  of,  95 

Upon  and  onto,  91 

Use  for  used,  220 

Valued  in  letters,  291 

Variety  in  expression,  need  of,  287 

Veracious,  distinguished  from  vor- 
acious, 242 

Verb  phrases  instead  ot  subjunc- 
tive, 55,  56 


INDEX 


395 


Verbs : 

*    active  and  passive,  39,  40,  365 

agreement  with  subject,  57"6G 

conjugation,  31,  355 

forms,  recognition  of,  41,  42 

inflection  of,  31  ff. 

mood  in,  50 

number  in,  34,  35 

person  in,  34,  35 

principal  parts  of,  35 

regular  and  irregular,  35,  363 

signs,  40,  41 

transitive   and   intransitive,    43, 

364,  365 

Very,  distinguished  from  real,  86 
viz.,  semicolon  before,  132 
Vocabulary,  increasing  the,  149  ff., 

250 

Voice  of  verbs,  39,  40 
Volition : 

shall  and  will  to  express,  47 

subjunctive  to  express,  52,  53 
Vowel  sound,  purity  of,  183 

Wa'n't — not  a  proper  form,  61 
Want  "ad,"  replies  to,  297 
Wardrobe — no  hyphen,  166 
Ware,  wear,  and  where,  179,  184 
Ways — improper  form,  26 
We,  the  writer,  and  /  in  letters,  291, 

294,  295 

Weak  and  week,  179 
Well,  distinguished  from  good,  84 
Went — the  "I  have  went"  error,  37 
wh,  the  sound  of,  184 
When,  clauses  with,  123 
Whence,  from  not  needed  with,  246 
Where,  combinations  ending  in — one 
word,  166 

adverbs,  87 

clauses  with,  123 
Whereas — capitalize  first  word  after, 

159 
Whether  and  if,  100 


Whether,    while,   etc.     (not    wether 

wile,  etc.),  179,  189 
Which,  use  of,  63.  65 
Who,  use  of,  63,  65 

forms  of,  66 
Will,  41,  46-48 
Wish,  subjunctive  to  express,  52. 

53 

Wish  to  inform,  291 
Without: 

no  hyphen,  166 

not  now  a  conjunction,  99 
Women's  names  in  signatures,  283 
Word  families,  149 
Word  groups,  113 
Wordiness,  229,  230,  244-246 
Words : 

as  tools,  240 

commonly  misspelled,  174-179 

compound,  165-167 

division  of,  162-164 

failure  to  complete,  228-  229 

in  a  series,  115 

interesting,  249,  250 

misplaced,  104 

mispronounced,  182-189 

misused,  240,  241 

of  address,  121 

repetition  of,  229 

straining  of  meanings  of,  242 

superfluous,  246 

"understood,"  105 

use  of  too  many,  229,  244-246 
World,  in  compounds  followed  by 

hyphen,  167 
Would,  48,  49 

Would  say— bad  in  letters,  281,  291 
Write,  37 

distinguished  from  right  and  rite, 

178 

Writer,  used  to  avoid  7,  291,  295 
Writer  of  a  letter,  the,  264-266 
Written    composition,    general   in- 
structions for,  201,  202 


396  VOCATIONAL  ENGLISH 

Ye*f  punctuation  with,  128  You-all,  you-urw — bad,  248 

You— bad  use  for  one,  232  Yours  (alone — bad  in  letters),  291 

understood  as  subject,  10  Your*  truly,  etc.,  281,  282 


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